'HERN  BRANf 


INDIA:    ITS    LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  •    BOSTON  •   CHICAGO 
ATLANTA  •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY  -    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Lrm. 

TORONTO 


A  HOLY  MAN  OF  INDIA 


INDIA 


ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 


BY 


JOHN    P.   JONES,   D.D. 

SOUTH  INDIA 
AUTHOR  OF  "INDIA'S  PROBLEM,  KRISHNA  OR  CHRIST," 

ETC.,    ETC. 


Weto  gfltfc 

THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1915 

Alt  rigktt  reserved 

30692 


COPYRIGHT,  1908, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  October,  1908.     Reprinted 
October,  1909;  February,  1910  ;  November,  1911;  February,  1915. 


J.  S.  Cashing  Co.  —Berwick  <k  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


TO   MY   DEAR   CHILDREN 

WHO   HAVE 

BRAVELY   AND  CHEERFULLY  ENDURED 

THE   SEPARATION   AND   THE   LOSS   OF   HOME 

FOR  THE  SAKE  OF   INDIA 


PREFACE 

To  the  people  of  the  West,  the  inhabitants  of  India 
are  the  least  understood  and  the  most  easily  mis- 
understood of  all  men. 

It  is  partly  because  they  are  antipodal  to  the  West 
—  the  farthest  removed  in  thought  and  life.  They 

f^^ 

are  also  the  most  secretive,  and  find  perennial  delight 
'   in  concealment  and  evasion. 

According  to  Hindu  teaching,  the  Supreme  Spirit 
o 
s»  forever  sports  in  illusion.     It  continuously  manifests 

1  itself  through   unreal  and  false  forms,  which  delude 
and  lead  astray  ignorant  man.     In  harmony  with  this 
^philosophy  of  the  Divine  —  and  may  it  not  be  as  a 
^-result  of  it?  —  the  people  of  India  too  often  delight 
in   unreal   and    deceptive   exhibitions   of   themselves. 
At  any  rate,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  for  a  man  of  the 
West,  especially  he  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  type,  to  appre- 
hend the  full  significance  and  the  correct  drift  of  life 
and  thought  of  this  land. 

It  is  amusing,  when  not  discouraging,  to  witness 
travellers,  who  have  rushed  through  India  in  a  winter 
tour,  publish  volumes  of  their  misconceptions  and  ill- 
digested  theories  about  the  people  with  an  oracular 
emphasis  which  is  equalled  only  by  their  ignorance. 


x  PREFACE 

The  author  of  this  book  makes  no  claim  to  a  right 
to  speak  ex  cathedra  upon  this  subject.  Nevertheless, 
thirty  years  of  matured  experience  in  this  land,  living 
in  constant  touch  with  the  people  and  studying  with 
eagerness  their  life  and  thought,  gives  him  an  humble 
claim  to  speak  once  more  upon  the  subject. 

Even  now,  however,  his  pride  of  knowledge  is 
chastened  by  the  oft-recurring  surprises  which  the 
Oriental  nature  and  life  still  bring  to  him.  And  he 
does  not  cease  to  pray,  with  a  western  saint,  who, 
at  the  end  of  a  half  century  of  work  for  the  people 
of  India,  daily  cried  out,  — 

"  O  Lord,  help  me  to  know  these  people  and  to 
come  into  intimate  relations  of  life  with  them ! " 

If,  in  these  pages,  he  can  help  others  of  the  West 
to  come  face  to  face  with  the  immense  and  intricate 
problems  which  confront  all  who  desire  to  know,  to 
help,  and  to  bless  India,  and  shall  enable  them  to 
understand  better  the  conditions  and  characteristics 
of  life  in  the  Land  of  the  Vedas,  he  will  feel  amply 
repaid  for  his  labours. 

I  express  my  deep  gratitude  to  the  Rev.  J.  L.  Bar- 
ton, D.D.,  for  his  kind  encouragement  in  the  pub- 
lishing of  this  book;  and  also  to  the  Rev.  W.  W. 
Wallace,  M.A.,  for  his  generous  aid  in  the  proof- 
reading. 

J.   P.  JONES. 


CONTENTS 

1APTTO 

iX  INDIA'S  UNREST 

i.   Extent  of  the  Movement 
ii.   Causes  of  Unrest 
iii.   Conditions  of  Unrest    . 
iv.    Results 

v.    How  shall  the  Unrest  be  Removed 


THE  HOME  OF  MANY  FAITHS 30-71 

Hinduism  —  Madura  and  Benares        .        .         .  32 

Demonolatry  —  Madura       .    - 33 

Christianity  —  Travancgre  and  Cocjiin          .         .         .  34 

Judaism  —  Cochin 38 

Parseeism  —  Bombay 40 

Jainism  —  Bombay 41 

Mohammedanism  —  Agra  and  Delhi 42 

Buddhism  —  Delhi,  Sarnath 53 

Sikhism  —  Amritsar 61 

III.  BURMA,  THE  BEAUTIFUL         .        .        .        .        .        .         72-90 

The  Extent  of  the  British  Empire 72 

Burma's  Triple  Produce 73 

The  Land  of  Pagodas          . 73 

Mandalay 78 

A  Land  where  Woman  is  Honoured 80 

A  Land  where  Caste  is  Unknown 84 

The  American  Baptist  Mission 84 

The  Karens  and  their  Conversion 85 

Ko  San  Ye 87 

IV.  THE  HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM 91-122 

What  is  Caste 91 

i.   Origin  of  Caste          ........  93 

(a)  Religious  Theory   .         .        .        .        .        -95 

(£)  Tribal  Theory 96 

(c)  Social  Theory 97 


xii  CONTENTS 

aurax  PACKS 

(d)  Occupational  Theory      .....      98 

(e)  Crossing  Theory 100 

ii.   Characteristics  of  Caste 102 

Intermarriage 105 

Inter-dining 107 

Contact 109 

Occupation 112 

iii.   Penalties  of  Caste 115 

Boycott 116 

Caste  Servants  Interdicted 118 

Domestic  Isolation 119 

Prayaschitta.     (Travelling) 119 

V.    THE  HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  (Continued)       .        .        .      123-151 

iv.   Occasions  of  Punishment 123 

Change  of  Faith 124 

Marrying  a  Widow 126 

Beef-eating 126 

Officiating  as  Priest  to  Outcasts     .        .        .        .127 

Marrying  outside  of  One's  Caste    .         .        .        .128 

T.  The  Results  of  the  Caste  System       .        .        .        .129 

Possibilities  of  Good 131 

It  arrays  Caste  against  Caste          ....     132 

It  narrows  the  Sympathies 132 

It  degrades  Manual  Labour 133 

It  opposes  Commerce 134 

A  Foe  to  Nationality 135 

A  Foe  to  Individualism 135 

It  is  Unethical 137 

vi.   The  Dominance  of  Caste  ......     138 

Seen  even  among  Christians 140 

Roman  Catholicism  and  Protestantism  .         .        .     143 

Signs  of  its  Decadence 144 

Opposed  by  Western  Progress       .         .         .        .147 

Government  Opposition 148 

CV.-istianity  its  Foe 149 

VI.    THE  BHAGAVAD  GITA  —  THE  HINDU  BIBLE          .        .      152-189 

i.   What  is  this  Song 153 

ii.  What  are  its  Purposes  and  Contents  .        .        .        .156 


CONTENTS  xiii 

CHArrnt  FACES 

1.  Its  Teaching  concerning  God     ....     160 

Incarnation    .        .        .        .        .        .        .163 

2.  The  Doctrine  of  the  Living  Soul         .        .        .     167 

3.  The  Doctrine  of  Liberation         ....     169 

(1)  Through  Knowledge       ....     169 

(2)  Through  Asceticism        .        .        .        .171 

(3)  Through  Works 174 

Caste   . 177 

Detachment          .        .        .        .        .179 
Bhakti 181 

(4)  Altruism 183 

4.  The  Doctrine  of  Salvation  .        .  .        .184 

Reincarnation 185 

iii.   Conclusion 187 

VII.    POPULAR  HINDUISM     .......     190-219 

i.  The  Higher  Faith 190 

The  Evolution  of  Faith 196 

ii.   Popular  Hinduism 198 

1.  Caste 198 

2.  Polytheism       .......  199 

3.  Idolatry 200 

4.  Devil-worship 206 

5.  Fetichism 209 

6.  Immorality 210 

7.  Treatment  of  Woman 213 

8.  The  Hindu  Ascetic 215 

9.  Hindu  Pessimism 217 

10.  Astrology 217 

VIII.    HINDU  RELIGIOUS  IDEALS 220-241 

i.  The  Ideal  of  God i  223 

ii.    Ideal  of  Incarnation 225 

iii.   Ideals  of  Life 227 

Asceticism .  227 

Ceremonialism        . 231 

Quietism 233 

iv.   Ultimate  Salvation       .        .        .  •              .        .        .  235 

Transmigration        .......  236 

Absorption 237 


xiv  CONTENTS 


IX.  THE  HOME  LIFE  OF  HINDUS 242-275 

The  Home  Sanctuary .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  242 

The  Building  of  the  House 243 

The  Joint  Family  System 246 

Priest  and  Astrologer 251 

Place  of  Woman  in  the  Home 252 

The  Devotion  of  Woman 254 

The  Influence  of  Woman     .        .        .                 .         .        .  258 

Marriage  in  the  Home 260 

The  Hindu  Widow      .        . , 263 

Mother-in-law  and  Daughter-in-law 264 

£/  Love  of  Jewellery .  265 

(V-Clothing  and  Cuisine  ........  268 

Sickness  and  Death 270 

Funeral  Obsequies 272 

Shradda 273 

X.  KALI  YUGA  —  INDIA'S  PESSIMISM 276-301 

i.  The  Astounding  Length  of  the  Chronological  System  .  277 

History  and  Legend  in  India 281 

ii.  The  Cyclic  Character  of  Hindu  Chronology  .  .  .  286 

No  Progress  in  Time 287 

The  Source  of  Pessimism 288 

Hi.  The  Moral  Characteristics  of  the  Time  System  .  .  290 

Every  Yuga  has  its  Own  Character  ....  290 

The  Evil  Character  of  Kali 293 

Cut  Bono 298 

Astrology 299 

Lucky  Days 299 

-/XL    ISLAM  IN  INDIA 302-337 

i.   The  History  of  Islam  in  India 305 

ii.   The  Present  Condition  of  this  Faith  in  India        .         .  307 

Ill-adapted  to  India 308 

Its  Conception  of  Deity 309 

)               Intolerance  and  Tolerance 310 

Contact  with  Hinduism 312 

Compromise 319 

Islam's  Attempt  at  Reform 322 

Islam's  Redeeming  Qualities     .        .        ,        .        .  323 


CONTENTS  xv 

CHAPTER  FACES 

Muslim  Sects    . 327 

iii.  The  Mohammedan  Population 328 

iv.   Christian  Effort  for  the  Mussulman      ....  333 

XII.  "THE  CHRIST  AND  THE  BUDDHA 338-373 

i.   The  Conditions  of  their  Lives      .....  341 

ii.   The  Common  Principles  which  controlled  Them          .  345 

Sincerity 345 

Ethics 345 

Universal  Charity 349 

iii.   The  Teachings  which  differentiate  Them     .        .        .  352 

1.  Teaching  concerning  God 353 

2.  Their  Conceptions  of  Human  Life      .         .        .  356 

3.  Their  Ideals  of  Life 367 

Character  and  Wisdom 368 

Final  Consummation       .        .        .        .        .  370 


£p£   Mo 


MODKRN  RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  .  .  ^  .  .  .  374-411 

Hindu  Reformers  .  . 374 

i.  Hindu  Sects  .  . 376 

ii.   Modern  Movements          ......  378 

Ram  Mohan  Roy  ......  379 

Brahmo  Somaj 380 

Chunder  Sen 382 

Athi  Somaj 383 

Sadharna  Somaj 385 

New  Dispensation 385 

iii.  Progress  of  the  Movement 387 

Weak  in  Numbers 387 

Indian  Spirit 388 

Christian  Basis 389 

"  The  Oriental  Christ "  .  .  .  .  391 

Chunder  Sen's  Words 391 

Other  Testimony 396 

The  New  Dispensation 396 

iv.  The  Arya  Somaj 400 

Its  Progress 402 

Its  Principles 402 

Its  Antagonism  to  Christianity  .  .  .  403 


xvi  CONTENTS 

CHAmn  PAGES 

v.  The  Theosophical  Society 404 

Its  Reactionary  Spirit 406 

Mrs.  Besant    . 406 

The  "Masters" 408 

XIV.    THE  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN  INDIA        .        .     412-443 

i.   Early  History  of  Christianity       .        .        .        .        .  412 

Converts 417 

The  Character  of  the  Christian  Community      .        .  418 

Influence  of  Christianity 419 

"Swadesha" 420 

Protestant  Effort 422 

ii.  Ultimate  Triumph  of  Christianity        ....  425 

Not  the  Western  Type 425 

The  Kingdom  of  God 429 

iii.  A  Conquest  of  the  Spirit 430 

1.  Conquest  of  Principles       .        .        .        .        .  430 

2.  Conquest  of  the  Christ  Ideal       ....  434 

3.  Conquest  of  the  Incarnation  of  Christ         .         .  437 

4.  Conquest  of  the  Cross  of  Christ           .         .         .  439 

5.  Conquest  of  the  Christian  Conception  of  Sin       .  441 

INDEX 445 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

A  HOLY  MAN  OF  INDIA Frontispiece 

PACK 

THE  GOLDEN  LILY  TANK  IN  THE  MADURA  TEMPLE        .        .      35 

TAJ  MAHAL,  AGRA .43 

MARBLE  SCREEN  IN  TAJ  MAHAL      ......      47 

SHAH  JEHAN'S  FORT,  AGRA     '.        .        .        .        .        .        .51 

AKBAR'S  TOMB 55 

KUTAB-MINAR,  DELHI 59 

CASHMERE  GATE,  DELHI 63 

SCHWEY  DAGON  PAGODA,  RANGOON 75 

THEEBAW'S  PALACE,  MANDALAY 81 

JUNGLE  PEOPLE  OF  INDIA 141 

A  DRAVIDIAN  SHRINE,  SOUTH  INDIA 191 

Two  HINDU  IDOLS,  SOUTH  INDIA 203 

HUMAYAN'S  TOMB,  DELHI 303 

THE  GREATEST  IMAGE  OF  BUDDHA 339 

A  CHRISTIAN  VILLAGE  SCHOOL  IN  SOUTH  INDIA     .        .       .415 


xvii 


INDIA:  ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

CHAPTER  I 

INDIA'S  UNREST 

INDIA  has  been  called  the  land  of  quiet  repose, 
content  to  remain  anchored  to  the  hoary  past,  and 
proud  of  her  immobility.  Invasion  after  invasion 
has  swept  over  her;  but  — 

"The  East  bowed  low  before  the  blast, 

In  patient,  deep  disdain; 
She  let  the  legions  thunder  past, 
And  plunged  in  thought  again." 

Yet  this  same  India  is  now  throbbing  with  dis- 
content, and  is  breathing,  in  all  departments  of  her 
life,  a  deep  spirit  of  unrest.  This  spirit  has  recently 
become  acute  and  seemed,  for  a  while,  in  danger 
of  bursting  into  open  rebellion,  not  unlike  the 
Mutiny  of  half  a  century  ago. 

I 

This  movement  is  but  a  part  of  the  new  awaken- 
ing of  the  East.  The  world  has  seen  its  marvel- 


B  I 


a  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

lously  rapid  development  and  fruitage  in  Japan.  It 
is  witnessing  the  same  process  in  China  and  Korea. 
The  people  of  India,  likewise,  have  been  touched 
by  its  power  and  are  (1°  longer  willing  to  rest  con- 
tentedly as  a  subject  people  or  a  stagnant  race. 

This  movement  is  not  only  political,  it  per- 
meates every  department  of  life ;  and  it  partakes 
of  the  general  unrest  which  has  taken  possession  of 
all  the  civilized  nations  of  the  earth.  \  It  is  really 
the  dawning  of  India's  consciousness  ^f  strength 
and  of  a  purpose  to  take  her  place,  and  to  play  a 
worthy  part,  in  the  great  world  drama. 

This  spirit  found  its  incarnation  and  warmest 
expression  in  the  opposition  to  the  government 
scheme,  two  years  ago,  under  Lord  Curzon,  for  the 
partition  of  Bengal.  The  Bengalees  keenly  resented 
the  division  of  their  Province;  for  it  robbed  the 
clever  Babu  of  many  of  the  plums  of  office.  He 
petitioned,  and  fomented  agitation  and  opposition  to 
the  scheme.  Then,  in  his  spite  against  the  govern- 
ment, he  organized  a  boycott  against  all  forms  of 
foreign  industry  and  commerce.  This  has  been 
conducted  with  mad  disregard  to  the  people's  own 
economic  interest,  and  has,  moreover,  developed  into 
bitter  racial  animosity. 


INDIA'S  UNREST  3 

The  Bengalee  has  striven  hard  to  carry  into 
other  Provinces  also  his  spirit  of  antagonism  to  the 
State.  Though  he  has  not  succeeded  in  convincing 
many  others  of  the  wisdom  of  his  method,  he  has 
spread  the  spirit  of  discontent  and  of  dissatisfaction 
far  beyond  his  own  boundary.  Even  sections  of  the 
land  which  denounce  the  boycott  as  folly,  if  not  sui- 
cide, have  taken  up  the  political  slogan  of  the  Babu 
(Bande  Mataram  —  Hail,  Mother !)  and  are  demand- 
ing, mostly  in  inarticulate  speech,  such  rights  and 
privileges  as  they  imagine  themselves  to  be  de- 
prived of. 

The  movement  is,  in  some  respects,  a  reaction- 
ary one;  and  race  hatred  is  one  of  its  most  manifest 
results.  It  is  not  merely  a  rising  of  the  East 
against  the  West ;  it  is  also  a  conflict  between  Mo- 
hammedans and  Hindus.  In  Eastern  Bengal,  where 
the  Mussulmans  are  in  a  large  majority,  and 
where  the  Hindus  have  become  the  most  embit- 
tered, the  former  have  stood  aloof  from  the  latter 
and  have  opposed  the  boycott.  This  has  led  to  in- 
creasing hatred  between  the  members  of  these  two 
faiths,  —  a  feeling  which  has  spread  all  over  the 
country,  and  which  has  carried  them  into  opposing 
camps.  This  is,  in  one  way,  fortunate  for  the  gov- 


4  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

ernment,  since  it  has  given  rise  to  definite  and  warm 
expressions  of  loyalty  by  the  whole  Mohammedan 
community. 

Disgruntled  graduates  of  the  University  and  school- 
boys take  the  most  prominent  place  in  this  movement. 
The  Universities  annually  send  forth  an  army  of  men 
supplied  with  degrees  —  last  year  it  was  1570  B.A.'s; 
and  it  is  the  conviction  of  nine-tenths  of  them  that  it 
is  the  duty  of  the  government  to  give  them  employ- 
ment as  soon  as  they  graduate.  As  this  is  impossible, 
many  of  them  nurse  their  disappointment  into  discon- 
tent and  opposition  to  the  powers  that  be.  Many  of 
them  become  dangerous  demagogues  and  fomenters  of 
sedition.  Not  a  few  such  are  found  in  every  Province 
of  the  country.  And  they  find  in  the  High  School 
and  College  students  the  best  material  to  work  upon. 
These  boys  have  been  the  most  numerous  and  excited 
advocates  of  this  movement.  G\s  in  Russia,  so  in  India 
the  educational  institutions  are  becoming  the  hotbeds 
of  dissatisfaction  and  opposition  to  the  State,  But 
there  is  this  difference.  In  Russia  the  University 
student  is  much  more  truly  an  exponent  of  public 

sentiment,  and  more  ready  to  suffer  for  that  sentiment, 

^^ 
than  are  the  dependent  youth  of  colleges  in  India. 

This  movement  has  not,  to  any  considerable  extent, 


INDIA'S  UNREST  5 

reached  the  masses.  Nine-tenths  of  the  population  of 
India  are  satisfied  with  the  government  and  have  no 
desire  to  change  the  present  order  of  things.  Indeed, 
they  are  deeply  ignorant  of  the  grievances  which  the 
higher  classes  nurse  into  bitterness.  And  yet  it 
should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  ignorance  of  the 
people,  coupled  with  their  narrow  superstition  and 
lively  imagination,  make  them  very  inflammable  ma- 
terial under  the  influence  of  eloquent  demagogues. 

II 

One  of  the  most  marked  causes  of  this  activity  and 
discontent  is  the  recent  victory  of  Japan  over  Russia. 
It  is  hard  for  the  West  to  realize  how  much  that  event 
has  stirred  the  imagination  and  quickened  the  ambition 
of  all  the  people  of  the  East.  They  regard  that  war  as 
the  great  conflict  of  the  East  and  the  West.  India 
had  not  the  slightest  idea  that  Japan  would  come 
triumphant  out  of  that  conflict.  But  the  victory  of 
Japan  instantly  suggested  to  all  men  of  culture  in 
India  the  question,  "  Why  should  our  land  be  subject 
to  a  far-off,  and  a  small,  western  country  ?  Why  should 
we  be  content  with  our  dependence  and  not  reveal  our 
manhood  and  our  prowess,  as  Japan  did  ?  "  These  are 
inquiries  which  have  opened  up  new  visions  of  power 


6  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

and  greatness  to  the  people  of  India.  Japan  and  its 
people  have  been  immensely  popular  in  India  since 
their  recent  victory.  And  Hindus  believe  that  the 
peace  perfected  at  Portsmouth  was  the  harbinger  of  a 
new  era  of  liberty  and  independence  for  all  the  East. 

The  growing  influence  of  western  education  in  India 
has  had  much  to  do  with  the  present  state  of  things. 
It  is  true  that  India  is  still  a  land  of  ignorance.  It  is 
a  lamentable  fact  that  only  i  in  10  of  the  males  and  i 
in  144  of  the  females  can  read.  Only  22.6  per  cent  of 
the  boys  of  school-going  age  attend  school,  and  only 
2.6  per  cent  of  the  girls.  And  yet  the  enrolment  of 
more  than  five  million  scholars  in  the  public  schools  is 
a  significantly  hopeful  fact  as  compared  with  the  past 
history  of  India. 

This  education  is  distinctly  on  western  lines.  And 
connected  with  the  five  Universities  of  India  there  are 
many  thousands  of  young  men  and  women  who  are  de- 
voting themselves  to  a  deep  study  of  western  thought  and 
of  western  ideas  of  liberty.  The  Calcutta  University 
alone  has,  in  its  affiliated  colleges,  more  students  regis- 
tered than  Harvard,  Yale,  Princeton,  and  Toronto  com- 
bined. In  that  city,  which  is  the  centre  of  the  present 
unrest,  there  are  12,000  young  men  in  the  Colleges, 
and  30,000  pupils  in  the  High  Schools.  This  host  of 


INDIA'S  UNREST  7 

young  men  and  women  are  imbibing  modern  ideas  of 
manliness,  independence,  and  liberty  such  as  India 
never  knew  in  the  past;  and  they  go  out  into  the 
world  with  new  ambitions  for  their  country  and  in- 
spired with  not  a  little  "  divine  unrest." 

In  close  connection  with  this  educational  influence 
is  that  of  western  civilization  and  Christian  ideals. 
The  government  of  this  land  is  built  upon  Christian 
principles  and  is  animated  by  that  spirit  of  civilization 
which  dominates  the  West.  And  we  know  that  these 
make  for  manhood  and  independence  everywhere.  It 
would  be  a  sad  thing  for  Great  Britain,  as  it  would  be 
for  the  Christian  missionary  in  India,  if  these  lofty 
principles,  which  they  inculcate,  did  not  acquire 
increasing  power  over  these  youth. 

And  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  an  increasing 
number  of  the  elect  youth  of  India  go  to  -England 
for  the  completion  of  their  training,  and  return  well 
equipped  with  Anglo-Saxon  ideas  of  human  rights 
and  of  manhood's  claims. 

Nor  is  this  merely  a  movement  of  the  people  of 
India.  There  is  a  strong  body  of  Englishmen,  sev- 
eral of  whom  are  members  of  Parliament,  banded 
together  in  England,  for  the  purpose  of  promoting 
the  political  influence  of  the  people  of  India  in  the 


8  INDIA:    ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

conduct  of  the  affairs  of  their  own  country.  These 
men  believe  that  India  has  a  right  to  a  much  larger 
meed  of  self-government  than  she  now  enjoys.  And 
they  seize  upon  every  opportunity  to  urge  upon  the 
Home  Government  the  duty  of  granting  added  power 
to  the  people,  and  also  to  advise  the  leaders  of  In- 
dian thought  as  to  their  wisest  methods  of  procedure. 
There  are  not  a  few  radicals  in  Britain  who  believe 
that  India  should  govern  herself  as  an  independent 
colony.  And  they  rouse  within  Hindu  youth  who 
go  to  England  a  radical  spirit  of  discontent  and  dis- 
loyalty. It  was  only  the  other  day  that  Lord  Ampthill 
warned  these  men,  because  of  the  insidious  influence 
which  they  were  exercising  for  the  overthrow  of  the 
British  power  in  the  East. 

The  National  Congress,  which  has  just  reached  its 
majority,  has  a  profound  influence  in  the  development 
of  a  national  consciousness,  and  in  the  furtherance  of 
the  cause  of  independence  and  political  power  in  the 
land.  The  very  existence  of  this  institution  is  one  of 
the  highest  compliments  to  British  rule  in  India.  It 
would  be  impossible  for  one  to  imagine  the  Russian 
government  permitting  such  a  body  of  men  to  gather 
every  year  in  solemn  conclave  to  devote  several  days 
to  a  vehement  criticism  of  all  the  principal  acts  of  the 


INDIA'S  UNREST  9 

State,  to  give  vent  to  disloyal  sentiments,  and  to  pro- 
mote the  spirit  of  disaffection  throughout  the  country. 
This  Congress  has  devoted  nearly  all  its  time  to  a 
denunciation  of  the  powers  that  be ;  and  during  these 
twenty-one  years  the  writer  has  not  seen  one  word  of 
commendation  or  one  vote  of  appreciation  of  the  State 
in  the  reports  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Congress. 
And  the  demands  of  the  Congress,  inspired  as  they 
are  by  Anglo-Saxon  friends  in  Great  Britain,  are 
becoming  annually  more  definite  and  urgent. 

Until  the  meeting  of  1906  there  was  no  divergence 
of  sentiment  among  Congress-wallahs.  No  dissentient 
voice  or  conflicting  opinions  were  allowed.  It  is  to 
the  honour  and  highest  interest  of  the  Congress  that 
this  stage  has  now  been  passed  and  the  healthy  rivalry 
of  parties  is  felt  and  heard  in  Congress  councils.  It 
is  to  be  regretted  that  at  the  last  Congress  meeting, 
in  Surat,  these  two  parties  —  the  Moderates  and  the 
Extremists  —  came  into  bitter  conflict.  It  was  largely 
due  to  the  past  supineness  of  the  Moderates  who  per- 
mitted the  other  party  (which  is  a  small  but  noisy  mi- 
nority) to  resort  to  bluster  in  order  to  force  their  pet 
and  Litter  schemes  of  disorder  upon  the  Congress. 
When,  ultimately,  the  Moderates  determined  to  exer- 
cise the  rights  of  the  majority,  the  others  resorted  to 


io  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

force  and  caused  the  Congress  to  be  suspended  in  dis- 
order, thus  revealing  the  sad  spectacle  of  the  present 
incapacity  of  the  leaders  of  the  people  to  govern 
themselves  and  the  country. 

.  This  is,  however,  perhaps  the  best  thing  that  could 
have  happened  for  the  highest  interest  of  the  Con- 
gress itself.  The  two  parties  are  now  clearly  defined 
—  the  one  seeking,  through  constitutional  agitation, 
self-government  on  colonial  lines,  like  Canada;  the 
other  determined  to  overthrow  the  government  of  the 
foreigner  and  to  establish  its  own  upon  the  ruins.  And 
agitation  in  this  behalf  is  to  be  conducted  in  every 
possible  way,  constitutional  or  otherwise. 

The  Moderates  are  now  thoroughly  roused  and 
have  driven  out  from  their  councils  the  irreconcilables 
and  fire-eaters,  and  can  now  work  with  more  harmony 
and  success  for  the  attainment  of  their  wiser  plans 
and  more  reasonable  aims. 

A  few  years  ago,  the  State  ignored,  when  it  did 
not  ridicule,  the  National  Congress.  To-day  none 
recognizes  its  power  more  than  does  the  government. 

And  it  is  most  suggestive  and  instructive  to  see 
this  body,  of  fully  three  thousand  men,  gathered  to- 
gether from  all  parts  of  this  great  peninsula  —  men 
who  represent  peoples  that  speak  more  than  four  hun- 


INDIA'S  UNREST  n 

dred  languages  and  dialects!  They  conduct  their 
sessions  in  English,  which  is  the  only  universal 
tongue  of  the  country.  And  a  purer  English  is 
hardly  spoken  in  any  deliberative  or  legislative  body 
in  any  other  land;  and  some  of  the  addresses  are  de- 
livered with  a  force,  and  are  adorned  with  a  logic  and 
a  rhetoric,  which  are  truly  eloquent.  Verily,  the 
weapon  of  popular  power,  though  largely  used  against 
the  government,  is  the  best  compliment  possible  to 
the  State  which  has  created  it. 

The  Press  also  has  marvellously  grown  in  power 
and  in  dignity  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century. 
At  the  present  time  there  are  scores  of  dailies,  and 
many  more  weeklies  and  monthlies,  published  in  the 
English  tongue  by  the  natives  of  the  land.  And  they 
discuss,  with  intelligence  and  discrimination,  if  not 
with  moderation,  all  matters  of  State  and  of  political 
interest.  Recently  some  of  these  papers  have 
become  thoroughly  radical  and  oppose  the  govern- 
ment at  all  points. 

But  it  is  the  vernacular  Press,  representing,  as  it 
does,  hundreds  of  newspapers  in  all  the  tongues  of 
India,  that  carries  its  influence  into  the  villages  and 
homes  of  the  uneducated  millions.  The  present  con- 
dition of  discontent  with  the  government  has  been 


12  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

disseminated  among  the  common  people  more  by 
these  vernacular  papers  than  by  any  other  agency. 
Many  of  these  are  thoroughly  disloyal  and  seditious. 
Very  occasionally  they  are  prosecuted  for  their  inflam- 
matory editorials,  and  their  editors  are  imprisoned. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  hardly  any  country 
where  the  Press  has  greater  liberties  than  in  India ; 
and  there  is  no  land  on  earth  where  that  liberty  is 
more  abused.  The  very  toleration  of  the  government 
is  turned  as  a  keen  weapon  against  it. 

The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  freedom  of  public 
speech.  There  is  not  another  land,  save  perhaps 
America,  whose  citizens  have  greater  privileges  in  this 
matter.  The  seditious  speeches  which  have  been 
made  in  many  parts  of  India  during  the  last  two  years, 
by  Bengalees  specially,  and  by  a  few  other  radicals, 
have  been  such  as  would  in  Europe  lead  to  imprison- 
ment if  not  to  deportation.  Bepin  Chandra  Pal,  of 
Calcutta,  has  just  closed  a  tour  during  which  he  has 
made  many  addresses,  attended,  in  all  cases,  by  thou- 
sands of  students  and  disaffected  members  of  the 
community,  and  has  not  only  denounced  the  govern- 
ment as  the  very  incarnation  of  unrighteousness  and 
cruelty,  but  has  also  urged  the  people  to  do  all  they 
can,  both  constitutionally  and  otherwise,  to  defeat  and 


INDIA'S  UNREST  13 

overthrow  it  and  to  establish  a  native  rule  upon  its 
ruin.  Any  government,  in  order  to  ignore  such 
language  uttered  in  immense  public  assemblies,  must 
feel  very  secure  in  its  power.  Mr.  Pal  is  only  one 
of  many  who  have  thus  far  been  granted  absolute 
freedom  to  sow  broadcast  the  seed  of  revolution. 

Ill 

What  is  there  in  the  recent  condition  of  the  coun- 
try and  of  the  people,  which  warrants  this  unrest  and 
discontent  ? 

Disinterested  persons  will  not  say  that  the  State  is 
unprogressive  or  is  administering  its  affairs  unwisely. 
In  its  recent  Annual  Financial  Statement  we  discover 
evidences  of  prosperity  in  all  departments  of  State. 
There  is  no  extensive  famine  to  distress  the  people 
and  harass  the  government.  The  revenue  of  the  year 
exceeds,  by  nearly  30  million  rupees,  the  estimates; 
there  was  a  surplus  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  20 
million  rupees.  Owing  to  this  the  government  has 
reduced  the  opium  cultivation,  which  has  wrought,  for 
many  years,  so  much  injustice  to  China.  It  has  also 
increased  postal  facilities,  which  renders  them  cheaper 
and  more  convenient  than  in  any  other  land.  More- 
over, the  obnoxious  salt  tax  has  been  reduced  by  50 


i4  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

per  cent;  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  whole  tax  will  be 
remitted  shortly.  The  grant  for  education  is  also 
much  enhanced  beyond  any  former  year,  and  the  State 
is  even  planning  for  the  introduction  of  a  Free 
Primary  Education,  which  will  be  an  unspeakable 
boon  to  the  people. 

And  when  it  is  said  that  taxation  in  India  has  been 
reduced,  we  should  also  remember  that  in  this  land 
"the  taxation  per  head  is  lighter  than  in  any  other 
civilized  country  in  the  world.  In  Russia,  it  is  eight 
times  as  great ;  in  England,  twenty  times ;  in  Italy,  nine- 
teen ;  in  France,  twenty-five ;  in  the  United  States  and 
Germany,  thirteen  times."  In  other  words,  taxation 
in  India  comes  to  only  one  dollar,  or  three  rupees,  per 
head. 

But  it  is  claimed  that  India  is  a  land  of  deepest 
poverty.  This  is  perfectly  true.  But  it  is  not  true 
that  her  poverty  is  increasing.  The  Parsee  Chairman 
of  the  Bombay  Stock  Exchange,  in  his  last  annual 
address,  said  that  "  it  was  the  conviction  of  merchants, 
bankers,  tradesmen,  and  captains  of  industry  that  India 
is  slowly  but  steadily  advancing  along  paths  of 
material  prosperity,  and  for  the  last  few  years  it  has 
taken  an  accelerated  pace."  The  poverty  of  the 
people  is  a  very  convenient  slogan  of  the  political 


INDIA'S  UNREST  15 

party ;  but  there  is  everything  to  prove  that  the  condi- 
tion of  the  people,  deplorable  though  it  be,  is,  never- 
theless, slowly  improving. 

The  State  is,  moreover,  constantly  yielding  to  the 
growing  demand  of  the  people  for  a  larger  share  in 
the  conduct  of  public  business  and  in  the  emolu- 
ments of  office.  Even  at  the  present  time  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  India  has  introduced  a  scheme,  at 
the  instance  of  the  government,  which  will  add 
materially  to  the  power  of  India  in  the  conduct  of 
its  own  affairs. 

The  British  were  never  more  firmly  entrenched 
and  possessed  of  more  power  in  India  than  at  the 
present  time.  The  lesson  of  the  Mutiny,  of  a  half-a- 
century  ago,  was  not  lost  upon  the  administrators 
of  India.  Since  then,  no  Indian  regiment  can  be 
stationed  within  a  thousand  miles  of  its  own  home, 
and  thus  be  able  to  enter  into  collusion  with  the 
people.  And  the  artillery  branch  of  the  army  is 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  British  force.  Moreover, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  Mohammedans  and  the  Sikhs 
are  loyal  to  the  government,  and  would  stand  with 
the  British  against  the  Hindus  in  any  conflict  of 
arms. 

The  Hindus  themselves  realize  this  situation  per- 


1 6  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

fectly  well.  One  of  the  best-known  Hindu  gentle- 
men recently  wrote  as  follows :  "  The  truth  is  in 
a  nutshell  and  may  be  described  in  a  few  words. 
The  British  cannot  be  driven  out  of  India  by  the 
Indians,  nor  by  any  foreign  Power.  This  fact  is 
known  to  more  than  90  per  cent  of  the  people.  Of 
all  the  foreigners,  the  British  are  the  best.  We,  as 
we  are  now,  are  the  least  able  to  govern  India,  being 
not  equal  to  the  worst  and  weakest  foreign  Power. 
The  best  class  of  Hindus  are  not  only  sensible  of 
their  own  weakness,  from  a  military  standpoint ;  they 
are  also  dissatisfied  with  the  action  of  extremists  and 
believe  that  the  present  unrest  is  evil.  A  well-known 
Hindu  writer  describes  the  situation  in  the  follow- 
ing words :  "  The  class  of  people  the  Indian  Ex- 
tremists appeal  to,  consists  of  irresponsible  and 
impressionable  students  and  the  ignorant  populace; 
and  the  agitator,  who  is  thoroughly  cognizant  of  this 
fact,  uses  it  for  his  purposes.  He  appeals  to  their 
feelings,  and  succeeds  in  making  them  believe  in 
the  soundness  of  his  fallacies  and  mischievous  preach- 
ings. The  authorities  have  therefore  to  see  that 
this  class  of  people  is  protected  from  the  insidious 
appeals  of  mischievous  pseudo-patriots.  After  over 
a  ceiu-  ^y  Q£  beneficent  British  rule  in  India,  it  is 


INDIA'S  UNREST  17 

scarcely  necessary  to  attempt  to  justify  its  existence 
or  continuance.  At  the  same  time,  it  has  to  be 
recognized  that  discontent  prevails  among  the  peo- 
ple; though,  speaking  generally,  it  does  not  by  any 
means  partake  of  the  character  of  disaffection  or 
disloyalty.  Discontent  is  by  no  means  inconsistent 
with  loyalty  to  government.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  may  even  be  said,  with  a  certain  degree  of  truth, 
that  the  deep-rooted  and  abiding  sense  of  loyalty  in 
the  people  has  engendered  the  spirit  of  discontent, 
the  healthy  discontent  with  their  lot." 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  Hindu  caste 
system  is  an  insuperable  barrier  to  the  progress  of 
the  people  toward  independence.  The  unity  of  the 
Mohammedans  of  India,  who  are  only  one-fifth  of 
the  population,  is  in  healthful  contrast  to  the  myriad 
caste  divisions  and  social  barriers  which  separate 
Hindus  one  from  another.  One  must  be  compelled 
to  deny  the  sincerity  of  many  who  claim  that  this 
people  is  a  nation  which  prides  itself  upon  its  pa- 
triotism, so  long  as  the  caste  system  dominates  them 
and  their  ideas.  The  only  tie  which  binds  together 
these  people  is  the  spirit  of  opposition  to  this  foreign 
government.  Among  the  classes  and  the  masses 
there  is  absolutely  no  coherence  or  unity  of  senti- 


1 8  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

ment  in  any  line  of  constructive  activity.  So  that 
in  the  matter  of  self-government  they  would  prove 
themselves  to  be  sadly  incompetent. 

IV 

The  action  of  the  Indian  government,  in  view  of 
the  present  situation,  has  been  the  subject  of  criti- 
cism. Anglo-Indians  feel  that  the  Viceroy  and  his 
Council  have,  for  some  reason  or  other,  been  too  de- 
liberate in  their  action.  For  two  years  things  have 
been  going  from  bad  to  worse.  When,  recently, 
Sir  Bampfylde  Fuller,  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
East  Bengal,  took  prompt  and  vigorous  action  to 
suppress  the  uprising  in  his  Province,  which  was  the 
centre  of  trouble,  the  Indian  government  declined  to 
support  him.  He  therefore  resigned,  arid  India  lost 
one  of  the  men  who  are  the  most  competent  to  deal 
wisely  and  well  with  sedition-mongers.  The  State 
may  have  thought,  and  was  probably  right  in  think- 
ing, that  while  the  Bengal  Babu  is  capable  of  un- 
limited noise,  he  has  a  mortal  aversion  to  converting 
his  noise  into  action.  So  the  government  preferred 
patiently  to  endure  odium  rather  than  suppress  the 
movement. 

It  was  different  in  the  Panjaub,  whose  people  are 


INDIA'S  UNREST  19 

less  talkative,  but  are  more  given  to  action.  These 
warrior  tribes  were  being  rapidly  disaffected  by  politi- 
cal agitators;  and  they  doubtless  had  definite  griev- 
ances of  their  own  to  agitate  them.  The  time  came 
when  government  was  compelled  to  do  something  to 
suppress  the  rising  tide  of  feeling.  It  decided  to  act 
upon  a  law  of  nearly  a  century  ago,  and  deported  two 
of  the  leaders  of  the  movement.  They  were  at  once 
sent  to  Burma,  where  they  were  held  in  surveillance 
for  six  months  and  then  released.  This  action  of  the 
State  was  effective;  for  it  quieted  the  people  and 
nipped  what  promised  to  be  a  rebellion,  in  the  bud. 
But  it  raised  a  storm  of  denunciation  from  all  the 
Hindu  papers,  which  spoke  of  it  as  a  violation  of 
the  Queen's  Proclamation  and  an  act  subversive  of 
the  most  sacred  rights  of  the  people  of  the  country 
and  of  the  most  elementary  form  of  justice !  One 
writer  claims  that  "  the  meanest  British  subject  is 
entitled  to  a  writ  of  Habeas  Corpus,  and  thus  secure 
an  effective  protection  against  arbitrary  imprisonment 
and  arrest  by  the  government."  This  is  certainly 
true  in  ordinary  times  of  peace ;  but  the  government 
had  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  state  of  things 
in  the  Panjaub  was  anything  but  peaceable,  and  that 
it  must  act  in  view  of  the  extraordinary  condition 


20  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

of  the  Province.  And  its  method  of  procedure  has 
proved  itself  to  be  the  most  bloodless  and  inexpensive 
possible.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  chief  deported 
man,  Mr.  Lala  Rajpat  Rai,  is  not  an  extremist;  but 
this  has  to  be  proved,  and  it  may  be  presumed  that 
the  government  was  more  conversant  with  his  acts 
and  their  influence  upon  the  people,  and  the  native 
army,  than  some  of  his  defenders  are.  All  must 
regret  the  necessity  of  so  unconstitutional  a  method 
of  dealing  with  this  great  evil ;  but  when  such  a  man 
as  the  Hon.  Mr.  Morley,  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
India,  agrees  with  the  Indian  government  in  this 
matter,  it  may  be  presumed  to  have  been  necessary. 

The  government  has  also  proclaimed  and  prohibited 
the  assembling  together  of  the  people  for  political 
purposes  in  the  most  disaffected  parts  of  the  country, 
and  more  especially  where  the  Hindus  and  Moham- 
medans are  fighting  each  other.  None  can  question 
the  wisdom  of  thus  saving  the  people  from  bitter  feuds 
and  the  power  of  agitators. 

Another  very  important  action  of  the  State  has  been 
to  warn  the  students  of  the  Universities  against  par- 
ticipating in  political  agitation,  and  to  threaten  the 
withdrawal  of  affiliation  from  institutions  of  learning 
in  which  political  agitation  is  encouraged.  Nobody 


INDIA'S  UNREST  21 

will  dispute  the  wisdom  of  this  action;  for  the  school- 
boys of  India  seem  as  disloyal  as  they  are  irresponsible, 
and  are  the  most  pliant  tools  of  radical  demagogues. 
The  Press  also  is  receiving  the  attention  of  the 
government.  The  vernacular  Press  is  in  special  need 
of  being  taught  the  lesson  of  its  responsibility  to  the 
people  and  to  the  State.  And  the  best  elements  of 
the  community,  both  Anglo-Indian  and  Indian,  believe 
heartily  that  editors  and  proprietors  of  papers  should 
be  brought  to  account  for  their  seditious  utterances. 

V 

Many  are  now  asking,  "  How  shall  this  trouble  be 
removed  and  peace  and  good-will  be  restored  to  the 
land  ? " 

Nothing  is  more  necessary  than  the  cultivation  of 
mutual  understanding  between  the  two  races.  It  is 
very  unfortunate  that,  in  this  matter,  the  situation  has 
not  improved  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century. 
Indeed,  the  racial  problem  is  more  acute  now,  as  it  is  in 
America,  than  it  was  ever  before.  All  seem  too  ready 
to  accept,  as  conclusive,  the  statement  of  Kipling, — 

"  O  !  the  East  is  East  and  the  West  is  West, 

And  never  the  twain  shall  meet, 
Till  earth  and  sky  stand  presently 
Before  God's  great  judgment  seat." 


22  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND  THOUGHT 

And  they  too  easily  ignore  the  other  part  which  con- 
veys his  lesson,  — 

"  But  there  is  neither  East  nor  West, 
Nor  border,  nor  breed,  nor  birth, 
Where  two  strong  men  stand  face  to  face, 
Though  they  come  from  the  ends  of  the  earth." 

• 

The  parties  concerned  in  India  to-day  must  learn 

the  lesson  of  mutual  forbearance  and  study  to  under- 
stand each  other's  peculiarities  and  enter  more  fully  into 
each  other's  thoughts,  sentiments,  and  idiosyncrasies. 

The  Anglo-Indian  stands  most  in  need  of  this  lesson 
of  aptitude.  The  Anglo-Saxon  is  notoriously  conceited 
and  given  to  thinking  that  he  has  nothing  to  learn 
from  other  people,  especially  those  who  are  politically 
subject  to  him.  He  looks  with  contempt  upon  the 
"mild  Hindu,"  and  maintains  that  it  is  the  business  of 
Brahman  and  Sudra  alike  meekly  to  submit  to,  ajid 
obey,  his  lordship.  He  tramples  upon  their  sensibili- 
ties and  declines  to  learn  any  lessons  of  wisdom  from 
them.  On  the  other  hand,  Brahman  and  Sudra  have 
ineradicable  prejudices,  which  they  nurse  with  extraor- 
dinary fondness  and  cherish  with  unyielding  tenacity. 
The  leader  of  this  people,  the  Brahman,  is,  in  his  way, 
even  more  haughty  than  the  Anglo-Indian. 

This  situation  is  full  of  difficulty.      Here  we  have 


INDIA'S  UNREST  23 

two  races,  the  Aryan  of  the  East  and  the  Aryan  of  the 
West,  standing  face  to  face.  Each  in  its  way  claims 
dominance.  The  Westerner  claims  superiority  by 
right  of  conquest  and  of  advanced  civilization  and 
general  progress.  And  he  is  not  backward  in  pre- 
senting his  vaunted  claims !  The  Easterner,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  ruled  India  by  right  of  intelligence 
and  by  every  claim  of  social  and  religious  distinction, 
for  at  least  thirty  centuries.  He  stands  to-day  a  match 
for  any  individual,  East  or  West,  in  intellectual  prowess. 
But,  more  than  this,  socially  and  religiously  he  regards 
himself  as  the  first  son  of  heaven.  Contact  with  an 
Englishman,  even  with  the  King-Emperor  himself,  is 
for  him  pollution,  which  must  be  removed  by  elaborate 
and  exacting  religious  ceremonies.  To  eat  with  any 
such  would  be  a  sin  of  the  deepest  dye.  How  can  one 
expect  such  a  man  to  meet  with  a  foreigner  on  even 
terms,  or  to  treat  him  with  equality  and  true  friend- 
ship ?  Before  India  loves  its  conquerors,  and  sympathy 
and  good  understanding  are  established  between  them, 
both  parties  need  to  be  born  again.  At  least  they 
must  endeavour  to  lay  aside  their  prejudices  and  to 
cultivate  the  kinship  of  their  united  destiny.  The 
writer  recently  listened  to  an  eloquent  address  de- 
livered by  a  cultured  Hindu  gentleman,  in  which  he 


24  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

implored  Anglo-Indians  to  cultivate  their  friendship 
and  to  forget  the  different  shades  of  their  complexion. 
The  prejudice  of  colour  is,  he  maintains,  as  strong  in 
India  as  it  is  in  America,  and  is  perhaps  more  bitter 
than  ever.  A  man,  said  he  truly,  should  not  be  con- 
demned by  his  brother  because  of  his  slightly  different 
shade  of  colour,  which  is  only  skin  deep. 

It  is  also  certain  that  Great  Britain  should  and 
must  give  to  the  inhabitants  of  this  land  more  in- 
fluence and  higher  position  in  the  direction  of  the 
affairs  of  the  State.  After  a  training  of  more  than 
a  century  by  England  herself,  India  is  prepared  for  a 
larger  place  in  the  direction  of  her  own  political  des- 
tiny. Western  civilization,  western  education,  and 
the  Christian  religion  have  wrought  wonders  in 
India  in  the  development  of  a  new  life  and  a  new 
consciousness  among  many  of  the  people.  There  are 
thousands  of  men,  to-day,  who  are  in  every  way  com- 
petent to  occupy  high  positions  in  government.  And 
it  is  impossible  that  they  should  be  kept  loyal  and 
contented  under  a  regime  which  constantly  reminds 
them  of  their  subjection  and  their  lack  of  worthiness 
to  fill  any  but  subordinate  positions.  It  is  true,  as  we 
have  seen,  that  government  is  extending  the  privi- 
leges and  multiplying  the  opportunities  of  such  men. 


INDIA'S  UNREST  25 

But  it  is  not  doing  this  with  the  pace,  the  grace,  and 
the  heartiness  that  circumstances  demand. 

On  the  other  hand,  Indians  must  seek,  increasingly, 
to  cultivate  social  and  moral  aptitude,  rather  than  to 
be  forever  claiming  and  demanding  rights.  The  best 
friends  of  India  believe  that  she  has  just  as  many 
political  rights  as  she  is  able  wisely  to  exercise. 
Representative  Institutions  have  already  been  estab- 
lished here  both  in  the  conduct  of  Municipalities,  Dis- 
trict Boards,  and  of  the  Provincial  and  the  Imperial 
Governments.  The  people  are  being  trained  for  the 
wisest  exercise  of  political  rights.  But  many  who 
have  carefully  observed  the  political  corruption  which 
they  reveal  in  the  exercise  of  already  acquired  rights, 
think  that  no  greater  evil  could  befall  India  than  that 
of  a  sudden  bestowal,  by  the  State,  of  a  great  exten- 
sion of  these  privileges. 

The  root  of  India's  present  incapacity  for  self-gov- 
ernment is  not  intellectual,  but  social  and  moral.  No 
one  doubts  that  there  is  ability  enough;  but  many 
believe  that  India  must  develop  much  upon  the  lower 
ranges  of  domestic  sanity  and  social  ethics  before  it  is 
prepared  for  enhanced  political  privileges.  The  igno- 
rance and  the  disabilities  of  women  in  India  are  a 
crying  injustice,  whose  influence  penetrates  every  de- 


«6  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

partment  of  Indian  life,  and  for  the  removal  of  which 
educated  Indians  will  hardly  raise  a  finger. 

The  caste  system,  with  its  numberless  stereotyped 
divisions,  its  myriad  insurmountable  barriers  between 
class  and  class,  and  its  countless  petty  jealousies  and 
mutual  antagonisms,  is  well  known  to  all.  And  so 
long  as  Hindus  continue  to  worship  this  demon,  caste, 
it  is  impossible  for  them  to  become  a  united  body  to 
which,  with  any  courtesy,  the  name  Nation  can  be 
applied.  Nor  can  they  blend  into  such  action  as  can 
in  any  sense  be  called  National  or  patriotic.  India  is 

*  wofully  lacking  in  the  first  essential  of  self-govern- 
ment—  public  spirit. 

In  other  words,  the  most  urgent  need  of  India  at 

-  present  is  social  reform,  which  depends  entirely  upon 
the  people,  and  not  political  reform,  which  must  come 
from  the  State.     And  yet  the  social  reform  movement 
in  India  is  less  rapid  to-day  than  at  any  time  during 
the  last  quarter  of  a  century.     And  those  who  cry 
loudest  for  political  rights  are  the  ones  who  cast  a 
sinister  eye  upon  the  social  reform  movement. 

And  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  people  who 
cry  most  loudly  for  national  independence  to-day  are 
the  very  ones  whose  antecedents  and  whose  funda- 
mental conceptions  of  life  and  of  society  would  forbid  v 


INDIA'S  UNREST  27 

them  to  grant  even  the  most  elementary  social,  not 
to  say  political,  rights  to  one-half  of  the  population  of 
the  land.  The  way  the  Brahman  and  the  higher  Su- 
dras,  who  are  clamouring  for  what  they  regard  God- 
given  rights  from  the  British  government,  deny  in 
principle  and  practice,  to  their  fellow-citizens,  the 
so-called  outcasts  and  other  members  of  the  com- 
munity, the  most  elementary  principles  of  liberty  and 
privilege  which  they  themselves  now  enjoy,  is  a  sig- 
nificant comment  upon  their  political  sanity  and  sense 
of  congruity. 

In  connection  with  this  same  problem,  Indians 
should  not  forget  that  in  the  multiplicity  of  antipa- 
thies which  exist  between  the  many  races  of  India, 
and  in  the  religious  conflicts,  which  too  often  arise, 
there  is  need,  and  there  will  be  need  for  many  years, 
of  one  supreme  power  which  has  the  ability  to  hold 
the  balance  of  justice  evenly  between  race  and  race, 
and  to  command  social  and  religious  liberty  to  the 
three  hundred  millions  of  the  land.  And  this  is  what 
Great  Britain  has  done  and  is  doing  for  India.  Pax 
Britannica  has  been  one  of  the  greatest  boons  that  the 
West  has  conferred  upon  the  East. 

It  may  also  be  well  to  add  that  Indians  should  have 
regard  to  the  limits  of  the  rights  of  a  subject  people. 


28  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

./ It  is  useless  to  talk  of  self-government,  until  they  are 
able  to  exercise  the  same;  and  even  the  most  rabid 
Hindu  cannot  dream  that  India  is  ripe  for  self-govern- 
ment and  could  maintain  it  for  a  month  if  the  British 
were  to  leave  the  country.  And  if  the  British  must 
remain  here  at  all,  it  must  be  as  the  dominant  power. 
Canada  and  Australia,  in  their  independence,  may  be 
ideals  for  India  to  pattern  after;  but  India  cannot 
enjoy  the  rights  of  those  two  independent  colonies 
until  her  character  becomes  as  steady,  her  ideas  of 
liberty  and  her  practice  of  social  equality  and  her  con- 
ception of  human  rights  become  as  clarified,  as  they 
are  in  those  two  countries. 

The  recent  proposal  of  the  Government  of  India  to 
enlarge  the  Legislative  Councils  and  to  create  an 
Imperial  Advisory  Council  reveals  the  purpose  of  the 
State  to  grant  to  the  people  all  that  is  consistent 
with  the  paramountcy  of  the  British  in  India.  But 
it  is  this  very  paramountcy  which  the  extremists  deny 
to  Great  Britain.  Herein  lies  the  gist  of  the  trouble. 
It  will  erelong  create  a  serious  impasse. 

Great  Britain  cannot  remain  in  this  land  and  efface 
herself.  At  the  same  time,  when  India  is  prepared 
for  absolute  self-government,  she  will  receive  the 
blessing,  and  Great  Britain  will  leave  the  land  with 


INDIA'S  UNREST 


29 


a  blessed  consciousness  that  she  has  wrought  for 
India  the  greatest  blessing  and  the  noblest  achieve- 
ment that  any  people  has  wrought  for  another  and  a 
foreign  people  in  all  the  history  of  the  world.  And 
until  that  time  comes,  both  India  and  Great  Britain 
need  to  thank  God  that  He  has  so  strangely  blended 
together  their  destinies  for  the  highest  elevation  of 
both  races. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE    HOME    OF   MANY    FAITHS 

THE  land  of  the  Vedas  justly  boasts  of  being  the 
mother,  or  the  foster-mother,  of  nine  great  religions. 

It  has  given  birth  to  the  greatest  ethnic  religion 
the  world  has  seen ;  it  is  also  the  motherland  of  one 
of  the  three  great  missionary  faiths  of  the  world. 
These  two  religions — Hinduism  and  Buddhism  — 
count  among  their  followers  more  than  a  third  of  the 
human  race,  and  are,  in  some  respects,  as  vigorous 
now  as  at  any  time  in  their  history. 

It  is  the  foster-mother  of  Mohammedanism  and 
counts  among  her  sons  and  daughters  more  of  the 
followers  of  the  Prophet  of  Mecca  than  are  found  in 
any  other  land. 

It  has  also  been  the  asylum  of  many  followers  of 
the  Nazarene  for  at  least  sixteen  centuries ;  many 
even  claim  that  Christianity  has  found  a  home  here 
since  apostolic  days. 

There  is  no  land  comparable  with  India  in  the 
variegated  expressions  of  its  beliefs  which  add  pic- 

3° 


THE   HOME   OF   MANY  FAITHS  31 

turesqueness  to  the  country  and  diversity  to  the 
people. 

I  purpose  to  take  the  reader  with  me  on  a  tour 
with  a  view  to  furnishing  glimpses  of  these  religions 
at  those  places  where  they  reveal  special  interest  to 
the  tourist.1 

India  is  a  land  of  immense  distances.  But  its 
thirty  thousand  miles  of  railroad  will  enable  the 
traveller,  within  a  couple  of  months,  to  scan  all  its 
points  of  interest,  and  to  feast  his  eyes  upon  visions  of 
Oriental  charm  and  splendour,  of  architectural  beauty 
and  grandeur,  and  of  such  monuments  of  religious 
devotion  as  no  other  land  can  present  to  the  traveller 
and  student. 

Let  not  the  Westerner  indulge  his  fears  about  the 
discomforts  and  dangers  of  travel  in  this  tropical  land. 

1  The  principal  faiths  of  the  land,  with  their  adherents,  were  as  fol- 
lows, according  to  census  of  1901:  — 

Hindu 207,147,026 

Sikh 2,195,339 

Jain I,334»i48 

Buddhist 9>476,759 

Parsee 94,190 

Mohammedan _* 62,458,077 

Jewish 18,228 

Christian       .......         2,923,241 

These  figures  include  Burma. 


32  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

To  an  English-speaking  tourist  there  are  a  few  lands 
only  which  furnish  more  conveniences  and  facilities 
for  travel  than  this  same  India;  and  travelling  is 
cheaper  here  than  in  any  other  country.  Comfortable 
second-class  travelling  rarely  costs  more  than  one 
cent  a  mile.  And  many,  like  the  writer,  have  travelled 
thousands  of  miles  in  third-class  compartments  at  less 
than  half  a  cent  a  mile,  and  without  much  other  incon- 
venience than  an  excess  of  dust  and  stiffened  bones. 
The  writer  has  seen  many  globe-trotters  pass  through 
India  of  whom  few  were  not  surprised  at  the  relative 
comforts  of  travel  here  during  the  winter  months,  and 
no  other  time  of  the  year  should  be  chosen  for  trav- 
elling in  India. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  start  upon  our  tour  from 
Madura,  the  missionary  home  of  the  writer.  It  is  a 
large,  wide-awake  centre  of  enthusiastic  Hinduism  in 
the  extreme  south- of  the  peninsula.  In  the  heart  of 
this  town,  of  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  people, 
stands  its  great  temple,  dedicated  to  Siva.  The 
principal  monuments  of  South  India  are  its  temples. 
They  are  the  largest  temples  in  the  world.  The 
Madura  temple  is  only  the  third  in  size;  but  in  its 
upkeep  and  architectural  beauty  it  far  surpasses  the 
other  two,  which  are  larger.  It  covers  an  area  of 


THE   HOME   OF  MANY  FAITHS  33 

fifteen  acres,  and  its  many  Gopuras,  or  towers,  fur- 
nish the  landmark  of  the  country  for  miles  around. 
It  is  erected  almost  entirely  of  granite  blocks,  some 
of  which  are  sixty  feet  long.  Its  monolithic  carving  is 
exquisitely  fine,  as  it  is  most  abundant  and  elaborate. 
Hinduism  may  be  moribund ;  but  this  temple  gives 
only  intimation  of  life  and  prosperity  as  one  gazes 
upon  its  elaborate  ritual,  and  sees  the  thousands  pass- 
ing daily  into  its  shrine  for  worship.  It  represents 
the  highest  form  of  Hindu  architecture,  and,  like 
almost  all  else  that  is  Hindu,  its  history  carries  us  to 
the  dim  distance  of  the  past.  But  the  great  Tirumalai 
Nayak,  the  king  of  two  and  a  half  centuries  ago,  spent 
more  in  its  elaboration  than  any  one  else.  And  it 
was  he  who  built,  half  a  mile  away,  the  great  palace 
which,  though-  much  reduced,  still  stands  as  the 
noblest  edifice  of  its  kind  south  of  a  line  drawn  from 
Bombay  to  Calcutta. 

In  this  same  temple  we  find,  transformed,  another 
cult.  It  is  called  the  Temple  of  Meenatchi,  after  its 
presiding  goddess,  "the  Fish-eyed  One."  When 
Brahmanism  reached  Madura,  many  centuries  ago, 
Meenatchi  was  the  principal  demoness  worshipped  by 
the  people,  who  were  all  devil-worshippers.  As  was 
their  wont,  the  Brahmans  did  not  antagonize  the  old 


34  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

faith  of  the  people,  but  absorbed  it  by  marrying 
Meenatchi  to  their  chief  god  Siva,  and  thus  incorpo- 
rated the  primitive  devil-worship  into  the  Brahmanical 
religion.  Thus  the  Hinduism  of  Madura  and  of  all 
South  India  is  Brahmanism  plus  devil-worship.  Ancf\ 
the  people  are  to-day  much  more  absorbed  in  pacify-  j 
ing  the  devils  which  infest  every  village  than  they  are 
in  worshipping  purely  Hindu  deities. 

The  prevailing  faith  of  the  Dravidians,  therefore,  is 
demonolatry ;  and  the  myriad  shrines  in  the  villages 
and  hamlets,  and  the  daily  rites  conducted  in  them, 
attest  the  universal  prevalence  of  this  belief  and  the 
great  place  it  has  in  the  life  of  these  so-called  Hindus. 

A  run  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  directly  south 
brings  us  to  Cape  Comorin,  the  southernmost  point  of 
India.  It  is  also  the  extreme  south  of  Travancore, 
"  the  Land  of  Charity,"  and  one  of  the  richest  and 
most  charming  sections  of  India.  It  is  a  Native  State 
under  the  control  of  the  Brahmans. 

It  is  unique  in  the  large  proportion  of  Christians 
which  are  among  its  inhabitants.  Though  the  Chris- 
tian community  in  India  averages  only  one  per  cent 
of  the  population,  in  the  State  of  Travancore  it 
amounts  to  25  per  cent.  It  is  here  that  we 
find  the  ancient  Syrian  Church,  with  its  three  hun- 


THE   HOME  OF  MANY   FAITHS  37 

dred  and  fifty  thousand  souls.  Though  it  calls  itself 
"  the  Thomasian,  Apostolic  Church,"  and  though  the 
Romish  Church  accepts  the  legend,  modern  historians 
deny  its  apostolic  origin,  and  claim  that  it  was 
founded  no  earlier  than  the  third  century.  Even 
thus,  it  furnishes  an  intensely  interesting  study.  The 
writer  was  deeply  interested  to  see  and  enter  its  two 
churches  at  Kottayam,  both  of  which  are  at  least 
eight  hundred  years  old. 

Four  centuries  ago,  Roman  Catholicism  used  all 
the  resources  of  the  Inquisition  in  order  to  absorb 
this  Church.  They  succeeded  only  too  well,  and 
half  of  the  Indian  Syrian  Church  is  now  subject  to 
Rome.  Nearly  a  century  ago,  the  Church  Mission- 
ary Society  of  England  lent  a  helping  hand  to  the 
Syrian  Church,  and  has  brought  new  life  and  pro- 
gressive energy,  and  a  new  spiritual  power  and  am- 
bition, into  a  portion  of  that  decrepit  type  of  ancient 
Christianity. 

Furthermore,  a  century  of  work  given  by  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society  and  the  Church  Missionary 
Society  has  created  a  Protestant  Christian  commu- 
nity of  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  souls  in 
that  little  kingdom  alone. 

We  pass  from  Travancore  into  the  little  State  of 


38  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Cochin,  on  the  north.  We  are  impressed  by  the  co- 
lossal Christian  church  in  the  town  of  Cochin,  in 
which,  however,  only  a  small  handful  of  English 
people  worship  every  Sunday  evening.  It  was 
erected  by  the  Portuguese  four  centuries  ago,  and 
is  a  charming  study.  It  is  here,  shortly  after  Vasco 
da  Gama  had  completed  the  first  round-the-Cape 
journey,  that  this  house  of  God  was  erected  by  his 
followers.  Two  centuries  later,  the  Dutch  came, 
conquered  the  Portuguese,  occupied  their  house  of 
worship,  and  desecrated  their  tombs.  In  that  church 
to-day  one  can  find  tombstones  inscribed  on  one 
side  by  the  Portuguese  to  their  departed  friends, 
and,  on  the  other  side,  in  Dutch,  to  commemorate 
departed  Hollanders. 

But  the  most  interesting  sight,  by  far,  in  this 
quiet  old  Indian  town,  is  the  community  of  white 
Jews  who  live  on  its  southern  side.  No  one  knows 
when  they  came  here.  They  probably  arrived  at 
the  Dispersion  of  the  first  century  of  our  era;  or  it 
may  be  later.  But  the  community  must  have  been 
reenforced  from  time  to  time,  as  they  have  main- 
tained, in  a  marvellous  way,  the  fairness  of  their 
complexion.  It  will  not  require  much  imagination, 
as  one  enters  their  synagogue,  to  think  of  the  syna- 


THE   HOME   OF  MANY  FAITHS  39 

gogue  of  Nazareth  of  old.  As  we  ascend  the  stair- 
way into  the  little  schoolroom  above,  and  hear  the 
little  ones  reciting,  in  pure  Hebrew,  passages  from 
the  Pentateuch,  we  can  easily  imagine  that  we  are 
listening  to  the  voice  of  a  dear  little  Boy,  nineteen 
centuries  ago,  reciting  to  His  master  those  same 
passages  in  that  same  tongue  in  Palestine.  There 
is  hardly  a  place  on  earth  where  Judaism  has  met 
with  fewer  vicissitudes  and  changes  than  on  this 
western  coast  of  India. 

It  is  only  a  couple  of  hundred  yards  farther  away 
that  we  find  the  synagogue  of  the  black  Jews  — 
the  descendants  of  those  who  were  given  by  the 
ancient  king  to  be  slaves  to  the  white  Jews.  They 
adopted  the  religion  of  their  masters,  and  are  still 
praying,  like  their  masters,  for  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah,  of  whose  arrival  and  triumphs  in  India 
they  seem  to  be  oblivious. 

Leaving  Cochin,  we  pass  along  the  coast  as  far  as 
Bombay,  which  has  been  called  the  "  Eye  of  India," 
and  also  the  "  Gateway  of  India,"  two  names  which 
are  equally  appropriate  to  this  beautiful  city.  There 
is  hardly  another  city  on  earth  where  more  races 
and  religions  blend.  And  its  streets  are  made  ex- 
ceedingly picturesque  by  the  many  costumes  of  its 


40  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

polyglot  population.  Before  the  arrival  of  the  plague, 
some  eight  years  ago,  Bombay  was  perhaps  the  most 
populous  city  in  India.  But  this  fell  scourge  has 
decimated  its  population  and  has  robbed  it  of  much 
of  its  ambition. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  people  that  we  see 
here  are  the  Parsees,  with  their  "  Towers  of  Silence." 

ccording  to  their  belief,  earth  is  too  sacred  to  be 
contaminated,  and  fire  too  divine  to  be  polluted,  by 
the  bodies  of  their  dead,  which,  therefore,  they  ex- 
pose in  the  towers,  erected  upon  an  adjacent  hill, 
to  be  consumed  by  a  crowd  of  hungry,  expectant 
vultures.  One  usually  sees  forty  or  fifty  of  these 
filthy  birds  standing  around  the  edge  of  each  tower, 
watching  the  funeral  cortege  as  it  slowly  winds  its 
way  up  the  hill,  eager  to  pounce  upon  the  body  as 
soon  as  exposed  by  the  bearers  in  the  centre  within. 
And  from  the  time  of  exposure  it  takes  hardly  ten 
minutes  before  every  particle  of  flesh  has  been  con- 
sumed. 

The  one  hundred  thousand  Parsees  of  Bombay 
are  almost  the  only  representatives  of  the  ancient 
faith  of  Zoroaster,  perhaps  the  purest  of  all  ethnic 
religions.  They  were  driven  out  of  their  home  land 
of  Persia  in  the  early  onrush  of  Mohammedan  fury, 


THE   HOME  OF  MANY  FAITHS  41 

and  fled,  twelve  centuries  ago,  to  India,  where  they 
found  asylum. 

The  Parsees  have  the  distinction  of  being  the 
most  advanced  people  of  India,  alike  in  wealth  and 
philanthropy,  in  their  treatment  of  woman,  and  in 
education  and  general  culture.  Their  influence 
throughout  the  land  is  far  beyond  their  numbers. 
And  yet  they  are  so  narrow  in  their  conception  of 
their  faith,  that  they  declined,  the  other  day,  to  re- 
ceive into  their  fold  the  English  bride  of  one  of 
their  number.  Thus  they  decided  that  there  is  no 
door  of  entrance  into  their  religion  for  any  one  who 
is  not  a  born  Parsee. 

It  is  in  this  city,  also,  that  we  find  a  large  repre- 
sentation of  another  ancient  cult  —  Jainism. 

Jainism  is  closely  kin  to  Buddhism.  It  represents  ^ 
the  same  type  of  reaction  from  a  debased  Brahman- 
ism.  As  its  name  indicates,  it  is  a  cult  for  the  wor- 
ship of  "  The  Victorious  Ones,"  that  is,  men  who  by 
self-discipline  have  triumphed  over  their  passions 
and  have  attained  perfection.  Buddhism  succumbed 
to,  and  was  absorbed  by,  a  new  militant  Brahman- 
ism,  which  we  call  Hinduism.  Jainism,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  maintained  itself  as  a  distinct  faith  and 
now  has  1,334,148  followers.  Like  Buddhism,  it  is 


42  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

an  agnostic  religion,  knowing  no  object  of  worship 
save  the  seventy-two  Victorious  Ones, 
v  One  of  the  leading  characteristics  of  Jainism  is  its 
love  of  life,  even  in  its  lowest  manifestation.  Their 
devotion  to  this  article  of  their  faith  is  carried  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  devout  will  sweep  the  road  lest  they 
step  upon  insects,  and  cover  their  mouth  with  gauze 
cloth  lest  they  swallow  and  destroy  minute  forms  of 
life.  In  the  city  of  Bombay,  Jains  have  a  hospital  for 
animals,  for  the  maintenance  of  which  they  spend 
large  sums  of  money  annually.  Maimed  cattle,  stray 
dogs  and  cats,  and  decrepit  animals  of  all  kinds  are 
sought  and  brought  here  for  asylum  and  care.  It  is 
even  said,  I  cannot  say  with  how  much  truth,  that  they 
employ  men  to  come  and  spend  nights  here  with  a 
view  to  furnishing  food  for  the  many  kinds  of  vermin 
which  infest  the  place. 

In  a  sumptuous  through  train  we  now  pass  rapidly 
over  nearly  one  thousand  miles  of  a  country  which  is 
intensely  interesting,  historically  and  ethnologically, 
and  finally  arrive  in  the  famous  city  of  Agra,  which 
stands  supreme  among  Indian  cities  as  a  centre  of 
architectural  beauty.  We  have  here  come  into  a 
distinctively  Mohammedan  region;  and  the  edifices 
which  crown  the  city  with  glory  are  not  only  con- 


THE   HOME   OF  MANY  FAITHS  45 

nected  with  the  Mohammedan  faith,  they  are  also  the 
masterpieces  of  the  greatest  minds  of  the  Mogul  Em- 
pire, and  culminate  in  the  Taj  Mahal,  which  is  the 
most  valued  gem  of  Mohammedan  architecture,  and, 
perhaps,  the  most  beautiful  edifice  in  the  world.  We 
first  turn  our  face  toward  the  Fort,  which  is  one  of 
the  magnificent  fortresses  of  India.  Two  and  a  half 
centuries  ago,  Shah  Jehan  was  the  ruling  Mogul.  He 
was  not  only  one  of  the  greatest  rulers  of  the  dynasty; 
he  had  also  a  passion  for  building,  and  was  a  man  of 
rare  taste  as  an  architect.  The  Agra  Fort,  whose 
stern  walls  of  red  sandstone  extend  about  a  mile  and 
a  half,  represents  to  us,  at  present,  not  strength  and 
protection,  but  an  enclosure  within  which  the  emperor 
built  his  great  palace,  which  is  a  marvel  of  beauty  and 
of  superb  architectural  workmanship.  The  most  at- 
tractive of  the  many  parts  of  this  palace  is  the  Pearl 
Mosque,  which  "  owes  its  charm  to  its  perfect  propor- 
tions, its  harmony  of  designs,  and  its  beauty  of  ma- 
terial, rather  than  to  richness  of  decoration  and  orna- 
ment. In  design  it  is  similar  to  most  temples  of  this 
kind ;  a  court-yard  with  a  fountain  in  the  middle,  sur- 
rounded on  three  sides  by  arcaded  cloisters ;  while  on 
the  entrance  side  and  that  facing  it  are  exquisitely 
chaste  marble  screens,"  "  Into  the  fair  body  of  the 


46  INDIA:  ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

India  marble  the  Moguls  could  work  designs  and 
arabesques  borrowed  from  the  Persia  of  ancient  his- 
tory, and  flowers  of  exquisite  hue  and  symmetry  sug- 
gested by  the  more  advanced  and  civilized  Florentine 
artists,  who  were  tempted  over  by  the  well-filled  coffers 
of  Shah  Jehan."  As  the  Pearl  Mosque  was  a  part  of 
the  palace,  it  was  only  used  by  the  royal  court.  Days 
of  pleasure  and  improvement  could  be  spent  in  the 
study  of  the  various  parts  which  have  been  preserved 
of  this  ancient  palace.  But  we  pass  on  a  few  miles  to 
the  Taj  Mahal,  which,  like  most  of  the  best  buildings 
of  Mohammedan  art  in  North  India,  is  a  mausoleum 
and  was  erected  by  Shah  Jehan  to  his  favourite  wife, 
Mumtaz-i-Mahal.  The  Taj  is  erected  in  a  beautiful 
garden,  the  gateway  into  which  is  perhaps  the  finest 
in  India  and  is  "a  worthy  pendant  to  the  Taj  itself." 
The  garden  is  exquisitely  laid  out,  with  a  view  to  set- 
ting off  the  unspeakable  charms  of  that  "  dream  of 
loveliness  embodied  in  white  marble."  The  Taj  has 
well  been  described  as  a  work  "  conceived  by  Titans 
and  finished  by  jewellers."  The  grandeur  of  the  con- 
ception and  the  wonderful  delicacy  of  the  workman- 
ship cannot  fail  to  impress  even  the  most  unlearned  in 
the  architectural  art.  Much  has  been  written,  and  all 
in  unstinted  praise,  of  this  incomparable  edifice ;  and 


THE   HOME   OF   MANY   FAITHS 


49 


yet,  like  the  writer,  every  visitor  comes  to  its  presence, 
feels  the  growing  thrill  of  its  beauty,  and  exclaims, 
"  The  half  was  never  told !  "  And  few  leave  the  place 
without  returning  to  be  enthralled  once  more  by  a 
moonlight  view  of  this  thing  of  beauty.  How  great,  in- 
deed, must  have  been  the  love  of  that  otherwise  cruel 
monarch  for  his  departed  empress  that  he  should  have 
exhausted  so  much  of  wealth  (some  say  that  the  Taj 
cost  thirty  million  rupees)  and  conceived  so  much  of 
beauty  wherewith  to  embalm  her  memory.  And  as 
we  enter  the  mausoleum  and  stand  in  the  presence  of 
the  lovely  shrines  which  it  encases, —  that  of  Mumtaz- 
i-Mahal,  and  that  of  the  emperor  himself,  —  the  mind  is 
awed  and  may  find  expression  in  Sir  Edwin  Arnold's 

poetic  fancy,  — 

"  Here  in  the  heart  of  all, 
With  chapels  girdled,  shut  apart  by  screens, 
The  shrine's  self  stands,  white,  delicately  white, 
White  as  the  cheek  of  Mumtaz-i-Mahal, 
When  Shah  Jehan  let  fall  a  king's  tear  there. 
White  as  the  breast  her  new  babe  vainly  pressed 
That  ill  day  in  the  camp  at  Burhanpur, 
The  fair  shrine  stands,  guarding  two  cenotaphs." 

And  upon  a  panel  of  his  own  shrine  the  mourning 
emperor  had  inscribed  these  significant  words  from 
ancient  traditions :  "  Saith  Jesus,  on  whom  peace  be, 

£ 


5o  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

this  world  is  a  bridge.  Pass  thou  over  it,  but  build 
not  upon.  This  world  is  one  hour ;  give  its  minutes 
to  thy  prayers,  for  the  rest  is  unseen." 

We  cannot  but  feel  that  the  Taj  is  the  highest  ex- 
pression of  art  that  human  affection  and  domestic 
affliction  have  ever  achieved.  This  is  not  religion; 
but  it  is  closely  kin  to  it. 

Not  far  from  the  Fort  is  found  another  great 
mosque,  or  musjid,  where  the  Mohammedans  crowd 
for  worship.  This,  also,  is  a  wonderful  specimen  of 
art,  and  in  its  combination  of  simplicity  and  beauty 
is  well  calculated  to  rouse  to  enthusiasm  the  many 
worshippers  of  Allah. 

About  six  miles  away  from  Agra  is  another  speci- 
men of  architectural  genius.  It  is  the  tomb  of  Akbar 
the  Great.  Some  believe  it  to  be  almost  equal  to  the 
Taj.  It  commemorates  with  great  beauty  the  noble 
name  of  that  most  distinguished  man  of  the  whole 
Mogul  dynasty,  —  a  man  who  was  famed  for  his 
breadth  of  view  and  sympathy,  his  wise  statesmanship, 
and  religious  tolerance.  He  did  more  than  any  other 
to  create  sympathy  between  Hindus  and  Mohamme- 
dans. It  was  in  this  mausoleum  that  the  famous 
Kohinor  diamond  found  its  place  and  was  exhibited 
for  years.  It  is  a  striking  fact  that  this  precious  stone 


THE  HOME  OF  MANY  FAITHS  53 

was  undisturbed  there,  in  the  open  air,  for  over  sev- 
enty years,  until  the  Shah  of  Persia,  in  1739,  in- 
vaded India  and  sacked  the  palace  of  the  Moguls, 
and,  with  other  fabulous  wealth,  carried  this  diamond 
also  back  to  his  own  country. 

Delhi  is  only  a  few  hours'  ride  to  the  north  from 
Agra.  It  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  city  in  all 
India.  From  the  earliest  times  of  Brahmanic  legends 
down  to  the  present,  it  has  been  the  centre  of  war  and 
conflict,  of  royal  display,  extravagance,  and  treachery. 
Here,  again,  Mohammedanism  has,  from  the  first,  ex- 
ercised its  power  and  revealed  its  religious  warmth  and 
enthusiasm.  The  Mohammedan  mosques  are  equal  to 
any  in  the  land.  And  though  the  Persian  sacked  the 
city  a  hundred  and  seventy  years  ago,  and  robbed  it  of 
most  that  was  beautiful  and  valuable,  there  still  remains 
a  part  of  what  was  probably  the  loveliest  palace  that  was 
ever  erected.  It  reveals  to  us  also  "  the  imperial  gran- 
deur of  the  Moguls,  whose  style  of  living  was  probably 
more  splendid  than  that  of  any  monarchs  of  any  nation 
before  or  since  that  time.  Their  extravagance  was  un- 
bounded. Their  love  of  display  has  never  been  sur- 
passed." It  is  claimed  that  the  Peacock  Throne  of 
this  Delhi  Palace  was  of  sufficient  value  to  pay  the 
debts  of  a  nation.  The  marble  walls  are  richly  adorned 


54  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

with  exquisite  mosaics.  Indeed,  they  are  regarded  as 
incomparable  specimens  of  the  art.  One  can  pardon 
the  builder  who  engraved  over  the  north  and  south 
entrances  to  this  palace  of  the  Moguls  the  following 

lines :  — 

"  If  there  be  a  Paradise  on  Earth, 

It  is  This  !   It  is  This  !    It  is  This  ! " 

Eleven  miles  from  the  city  are  found  splendid  ruins 
which  are  crowned  by  the  celebrated  tower  known  as 
Kutab-minar,  which  is  another  of  the  most  ancient  and 
interesting  monuments  of  India.  Originally,  this  re- 
markable structure  was  a  Hindu  temple,  and  was 
erected  probably  in  the  fourth  century  of  our  era. 
But  upon  the  invasion  of  the  Mussulmans  the  temple 
was  converted  into  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  and  the 
famous  tower,  which  is  238  feet  high,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  beautifully  erected  in  the  world,  was  allowed  to 
stand.  "  The  sculptures  that  cover  its  surface  have 
been  compared  to  those  upon  the  column  of  Trajan  in 
Rome  and  the  Column  Vendome  in  Paris;  but  they 
are  intended  to  relate  the  military  triumphs  of  the  men 
in  whose  honour  they  were  erected,  while  the  inscrip- 
tion on  the  Kutab-minar  is  a  continuous  recognition 
of  the  power  and  glory  of  God  and  of  the  virtues  of 
Mohammed,  his  Prophet." 


THE   HOME  OF  MANY   FAITHS  57 

It  is  in  this  city  that  one  is  impressed  most  thor- 
oughly with  memorials  of  the  great  Mutiny  of  half  a 
century  ago,  where  the  British  were  so  hard  pushed 
and  suffered  so  terribly  in  those  days  of  bitterness 
which  tried  men's  souls.  And  there  is  no  memorial 
of  this  bitter  struggle,  to  which  the  British  refer  with 
so  much  of  pride  and  glory,  as  they  do  to  the  Cash- 
mere gate,  which  they  blew  up  and  thereby  forced  an 
entrance  into  the  city,  with  a  loss  of  much  precious 
blood. 

But  it  was  not  the  Mutiny  nor  the  massive  and  gor- 
geous emblems  of  Mohammedanism  which  impressed 
the  writer  most  in  this  city.  It  was  a  vision  just  out- 
side the  walls  of  the  city  —  a  vision  of  great  simplicity 
—  which  thrilled  his  heart  a  few  years  ago.  It  was  a 
very  unattractive  little  ruined  tower,  from  the  centre 
of  which  rose  a  polished  granite  pillar,  some  thirty  or 
forty  feet  high.  It  was  inscribed  from  top  to  bottom, 
and  the  inscription  was  quite  legible.  It  spoke  not  of 
the  triumphs  of  war  nor  of  the  glory  of  human  rule 
and  conquest.  It  is  one  of  the  most  eloquent  testimo- 
nies to  the  nobility  of  the  Buddhist  faith.  It  was  car- 
ried here  only  a  few  centuries  ago  by  an  enlightened 
Mohammedan  monarch  from  the  far-off  plains  of  the 
north.  It  is  one  of  the  celebrated  "Asoka  Pillars." 


58  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE   AND  THOUGHT 

Asoka  was  the  emperor  of  twenty-two  centuries  ago 
who  wrought  for  Buddhism  what  Constantine  the  Great, 
at  a  later  day,  wrought  for  Christianity.  He  was  con- 
verted to  Buddhism  and  at  once  became  the  devout 
propagator  of  that  faith.  As  the  great  emperor  of 
his  time,  he  exalted  Buddhism  and  made  it  the  State 
religion  of  India.  He  not  only  sent  his  missionaries 
all  over  the  land ;  he  decreed  that  its  principal  teach- 
ings should  be  everywhere  inscribed  upon  rocks  and 
upon  pillars ;  and  that  these  pillars  should  be  erected 
in  public  places  for  the  instruction  of  the  people.  This 
pillar  in  Delhi  is  one  of  about  a  dozen  already  dis- 
covered and  preserved  in  North  India.  And  it  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  fully  inscribed  of  all  that  have  been 
found.  And  of  the  fourteen  Asokan  edicts  inscribed, 
most  of  them  inculcate  a  high  morality,  and  some  of 
them  a  noble  altruism.  For  instance,  the  first  is  a  pro- 
hibition of  the  slaughter  of  animals  for  food  or  sacri- 
fice. The  second  is  the  provision  for  medical  aid  for 
men  and  animals,  and  for  plantations  and  wells  on  the 
roadside.  The  third  is  a  command  to  observe  every 
fifth  year  as  a  year  of  mutual  confession  of  sins,  of 
peace-making,  and  of  humiliation.  The  ninth  is  the 
inculcation  of  true  happiness  as  found  in  virtue.  In 
all  these  inscribed  edicts  of  that  most  tolerant  and  cos- 


KlTAB-MINAR,    DKI.HI 


THE   HOME  OF   MANY  FAITHS  61 

mopolitan  Buddhist  emperor,  we  see  nothing  of  which 
Buddhism  should  be  ashamed,  and  much  of  which  it 

j  be  proud,  in  the  way  of  ethical  injunction.  It  is 
more  than  ten  centuries  since  Buddhism,  which  had 
been  the  common  faith  of  India  for  a  thousand  years, 
was  absorbed  into  a  new  militant  Hinduism  and  ceased 
to  exist  as  a  separate  faith  in  this  land.  To-day,  India  ^ 
proper  has  hardly  half  a  million  Buddhists.  And  yet 
we  behold  these  mute  prophets  of  far-off  days  scattered 
in  many  parts  of  the  land,  still  pressing  their  message, 
but  vainly,  indeed,  upon  a  people  of  unknown  tongues. 
Buddha  himself  is  now  a  part  of  the  Hindu  Pantheon; 
and  his  principal  teachings  have  become  an  essential 
part  of  the  faith  which  he  tried  to  overthrow.  But 
these  pillars  stand  for  Buddhism  that  was  tolerant 
toward  all  save,  perhaps,  the  Brahmanism  which  it 
existed  to  overthrow. 

From  Delhi  we  pass  on  northward  to  the  beautiful 
city  of  Amritsar,  which  is  comparatively  a  modern 
town  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  people.  In 
the  heart  of  this  town  stands  the  far-famed  Golden 
Temple  of  the  Sikhs,  built  by  Ranjit  Singh,  —  "The 
Lion  of  the  Panjaub."  The  temple  is  not  a  large  one, 
being  only  fifty-three  feet  square,  and  is  built  in  the 
centre  of  a  water  tank,  called  "  The  Pool  of  Immor- 


62  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND  THOUGHT 

tality."  The  peculiar  external  feature  of  the  temple 
is  that  it  is  largely  covered  with  gold  plate ;  hence 
its  name.  It  is  a  beautiful  object  to  behold ;  and 
we  are  in  haste  to  take  off  our  shoes,  which  are  pro- 
hibited in  the  sacred  precincts,  and  to  put  on  the 
shapeless  holy  slippers  presented  to  us !  We  enjoy 
perfect  freedom  in  passing  through  all  parts  of  the 
temple,  while  devotees,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
priests,  sing  their  songs  of  praise  with  devout  im- 
partiality to  their  god  and  to  their  bible. 

The  temple  is  the  centre  and  inspiration  of  the 
/  Sikh  religion.  The  Sikhs  are  an  interesting  people. 
They  rallied  round  one  of  the  multitude  of  the  Hindu 
religious  reformers,  named  Nanak  Shah,  who  estab- 
lished this  cult  about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
It  may  be  called  an  amalgam  of  Mohammedanism 
and  Hinduism.  It  unites  the  monotheism  and  the 
stern  morality  of  the  former  with  much  of  the  petty 
ritual  of  the  latter.  It  does  not  observe  caste.  Still, 
in  outer  matters  of  observances,  Sikhs  are  not  easily 
distinguishable  from  ordinary  Hindus.  They,  also, 
have  bound  themselves  into  a  military  order,  which 
gives  them  almost  the  distinction  of  a  nation.  For 
this  reason  they  are  among  the  very  best  material 
which  the  country  furnishes  for  the  native  army,  and 


THE   HOME  OF   MANY  FAITHS  65 

are  worthy  to  stand  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  Euro- 
pean soldiers. 

This  religion  is  peculiarly  a  book  religion.  It  has 
degenerated  into  a  species  of  bibliolatry.  Their  bible 
contains  the  teachings  and  sermons  of  the  founder  of 
the  faith;  and  it  presents  the  highest  standard  of 
morality  and  courage,  and  appeals  with  special  power 
to  this  sturdy  tribe  of  the  north.  This  book  is  called 
"  Granth,"  and  is  generally  spoken  of  as  "  Granth  Sa- 
hib," which  we  may  translate  as  "  Mr.  Book  " !  That 
is,  they  give  it  a  dignity  and  a  personality  which  is 
unique  in  any  faith ;  and  the  Golden  Temple  is  largely 
used  as  the  receptacle  of  the  "  Granth,"  of  which  they 
keep  a  few  copies  protected  by  covers,  which,  however, 
they  remove  in  order  to  show  them  to  us  as  we  pass  by. 

In  several  particulars  this  faith  is  unique.  They 
have  no  idols  or  altars,  but  meet  once  a  week  for 
prayer  and  praise.  Their  preacher  reads  passages 
from  the  "  Granth  "  and  prays  to  their  god,  who  may 
be  reached  through  the  intercession  of  Nanak  Shah, 
his  prophet  and  their  redeemer.  They  sing  hymns 
similar  to  those  used  in  Protestant  worship,  and  cele- 
brate communion  by  partaking  of  wafers  of  unleav- 
ened bread.  Their  congregation  do  not  object  to  the 
presence  of  strangers,  but  usually  invite  them  tq 


66  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

participate  in  the  worship.  There  are  about  two 
and  a  quarter  million  Sikhs  in  the  Province  of  the 
Panjaub,  —  the  land  of  the  "five  rivers." 

While  in  this  city,  one  is  tempted  to  look  at  the 
Khalsa  College,  one  of  the  institutions  established  by 
government  in  different  parts  of  the  land  for  the  suit- 
able training  of  native  princes.  Here  one  may  find 
young  Sikh  nobles  and  wealthy  landlords,  to  the 
number  of  five  hundred,  being  qualified  for  the  high 
responsibilities  which  are  before  them. 

We  hurry  back  from  the  north  in  a  southeastern 
direction  over  a  distance  of  eight  hundred  miles 
and  reach  the  city  of  Benares,  on  the  river  Ganges. 
There  is  hardly  a  river  in  the  world  which  produces 
more  fertility  and  which  brings  sustenance  to  more 
people  than  the  divine  Ganges.  The  river  is  not  only 
deified,  but  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  potent 
deities  of  India. 

From  time  immemorial,  Benares,  or  "  Kasi,"  which 
is  built  upon  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  has  partaken 
of  the  sanctity  of  the  river,  and  is  regarded  by  devout 
Hindus  as  the  most  sacred  spot  in  the  world.  To  die 
within  the  radius  of  ten  miles  from  its  centre  is  sure 
and  eternal  bliss,  even  to  the  outcast  and  the  defiling 
white  man  !  Many  thousands  are  brought  annually 


THE  HOME  OF  MANY  FAITHS  67 

from  all  parts  of  the  land  to  die  at  this  sacred  place, 
and  have  their  ashes  scattered  upon  the  waters  of  the 
holy  river.  Many  thousands  of  others  who  die  in  all 
parts  of  the  land  have  their  bodies  burned  and  their 
ashes  brought,  by  loving  relatives  upon  pilgrimage, 
to  this  city  to  be  sprinkled  upon  the  tides  of  the 
Ganges,  which  insures  eternal  rest  to  the  departed 
souls. 

What  Mecca  is  to  Mohammedans,  more  than  Jeru- 
salem is  to  Jews,  is  Benares  to  devout  Hindus.  It  has  - 
more  temples  and  shrines  than  any  other  equal  area  in 
the  world.  Its  priests,  who  are  called  Gangaputhira 
("the  Sons  of  the  Ganges"),  are  legion.  They  have 
their  emissaries  at  principal  railway  stations  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles  from  the  city,  always  on  the  lookout,  for 
pilgrims,  and  gathering  up  pilgrim  bands  to  lead  them 
on  with  ever  increasing  numbers  to  their  temples. 
The  idols  of  this  city  are  legion. 

But  there  is  nothing  here  which  impresses  one  more 
than  its  squalid  filth,  and  the  abject  degradation  of  the 
people  which  crowd  its  streets.  The  temples  are  ex- 
tremely dirty.  There  is  not  one  of  imposing  size  or 
of  decent  attractiveness.  There  stands  the  monkey- 
temple,  where  scores  of  mangy,  tricky  brutes  are  daily 
sumptuously  fed  by  devout  pilgrims.  On  one  side  of 


68  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

the  precinct  a  clever  butcher-priest  severs  with  one 
stroke  the  heads  of  goats  which  are  brought  for 
sacrifice  to  the  thirsty  deity.  As  in  Madura,  so  in 
Benares,  the  great  god  of  the  Hindu  is  Siva.  But 
the  character  of  the  worship  which  is  rendered  to  him 
and  to  others  of  his  cult  is  far  from  ennobling  when 
not  actually  revolting.  And  the  phallic  Emblem  of 
this  god  is  everywhere  found  in  his  temples  and  is 
suggestive  of  definite  evils  connected  with  his  worship. 
The  saddest  and  most  grewsome  of  all  objects 
which  impress  one  in  this  centre  of  Hinduism  is  its 
burning  Ghaut.  To  the_  side  of  the  river  many 
bodies  are  brought  daily,  each  wrapped  in  a  white 
cloth,  and  are  deposited  just  where  they  are  half 
covered  by  the  water.  Within  ten  feet  of  this  place 
we  see  parties  of  pilgrims  bathing  in  and  drinking 
of  the  sacred  water  of  the  river,  utterly  regardless 
of  the  proximity  of  corpses  above  stream !  From 
time  to  time  corpses  are  picked  out  of  the  water 
and  placed  upon  piles  of  wood  near  by.  Each  pile 
is  ignited  and  the  body  reduced  to  ashes.  These 
ashes  are  carefully  collected,  later  on,  and  sprinkled, 
with  appropriate  ceremonies,  on  the  face  of  the 
river.  Day  after  day,  and  year  after  year,  this  cease- 
less procession  of  the  dead  takes  place,  while  up 


THE   HOME   OF   MANY  FAITHS  69 

stream  and  down  stream  the  bank  of  the  river  is 
covered  with  men  and  women  who  fatally  believe 
that  by  bathing  in  this  dirty  stream  they  are  wash- 
ing away  their  sins  and  preparing  themselves  for 
final  absorption  and  eternal  rest  in  Brahm ! 

Benares  reminded  the  writer  of  Rome.  He  never 
realized  the  degradation  possible  to  Christianity 
until  he  visited  "  The  Eternal  City,"  with  its  huge 
shams  and  ghastly  superstitions.  He  never  saw 
Hinduism  with  its  myriad  inane  rites  and  debasing 
idolatry  half  so  grotesque,  idiotic,  and  repulsive,  as 
in  this  city  of  Benares,  where  one  ought  to  see  the 
religion  of  these  two  hundred  odd  million  people 
at  its  best,  and  not  at  its  worst. 

It  is  a  positive  relief  to  go  out  of  the  city,  a  dis- 
tance of  four  miles,  to  Sarnath,  where  the  great 
Buddha  —  "  The  Enlightened  One  "  —  spent  many 
long  years  in  establishing  his  faith  and  in  inculcat- 
ing his  "  Doctrine  of  the  Wheel."  It  is  a  beautiful 
drive  to  the  birthplace  of  one  of  the  greatest  world 
faiths.  Very  little  but  ruins  meets  the  inquiring 
gaze  of  the  visitor.  Some  of  these,  however,  are 
very  impressive,  especially  the  great  stupa,  or  tower. 
It  now  stands  a  hundred  and  ten  feet  high  and 
ninety-three  feet  in  diameter.  It  was  very  substan- 


70  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

tially  built,  the  lower  part  faced  by  immense  blocks 
of  stones  which  were  clamped  together  with  iron. 
And  this  facing  was  covered  with  elaborate  .inscrip- 
tions. The  upper  part  was  built  of  brick.  At 
the  foot  of  this  striking  ruin,  built  in  the  remote 
past  as  a  monument  to  an  ancient  faith,  devout  Bud- 
dhists from  all  parts  of  the  world  come  for  worship 
and  meditation  upon  the  vanity  of  life.  The  day 
before  the  writer  arrived,  the  Lama  of  Tibet  spent 
here  a  few  hours  worshipping  and  seeking  the  bless- 
ing of  the  "  Enlightened  One."  Near  by,  govern- 
ment is  making  a  series  of  excavations  and  is  dis- 
covering very  interesting  relics  connected  with  this 
ancient  monastery  founded  by  the  Buddha.  Already 
a  beautiful  specimen  of  an  Asoka  pillar  and  a  variety 
of  interesting  sculptures  have  rewarded  their  in- 
dustry. One  can  imagine  no  place  more  dear  to 
the  contemplative  Buddhist  than  this  centre  of  the 
activities  of  his  great  Master,  where  he  spent  many 
of  the  best  years  of  his  life  in  expounding  the  teach- 
ings of  his  new  cult,  and  in  leading  many  souls 
toward  the  light  for  which  he  had  struggled  with 
so  much  of  heroic  self-denial,  and  which  had  ulti- 
mately dawned  upon  him  under  the  sacred  Boh  tree 
at  Buddha  Gaya. 


THE   HOME  OF  MANY  FAITHS  71 

In  this  extended  pilgrimage,  during  which  we  have 
sought  ancient  and  modern  expressions  of  the  many 
faiths  which  have  dominated,  or  which  now  domi- 
nate, the  people  of  this  land,  we  have  come  into 
touch  not  only  with  those  tolerant  faiths  which  have  • 
found  their  origin  here,  or  which  have  found  refuge 
and  popularity  in  this  peninsula,  —  such  as  Hindu- 
ism, Demonolatry,  Buddhism,  Jainism,  Zorastrianism, 
and  Sikhism.  We  have  also  come  into  touch  with 
the  three  most  intolerant  faiths  of  the  world,  —  Chris- 
tianity, Mohammedanism,  and  Judaism.  There  is 
no  land  where  these  three  religions  have  suf- 
fered less  of  opposition  than  in  India.  Indeed,  it 
is  not  from  persecution  and  opposition  that  they 
have  stood  in  most  danger,  but  from  fraternal  con- 
tact, growing  appreciation,  and  ultimate  absorption. 
The  Hindu  mind,  like  the  Hindu  faith,  has  a  fatal, 
facility  for  accepting,  semi-assimilating,  and  finally 
absorbing,  all  of  religious  belief  and  conviction  that  , 
may  come  into  contact  with  it.  And  this  never 
necessarily  involves  the  abandoning  of  the  old  beliefs. 


CHAPTER   III 

BURMA,    THE    BEAUTIFUL 

IN  order  to  appreciate  the  wide  extent  of  the 
British  Empire  in  the  East,  one  needs  to  travel 
over  the  main  lines  of  India  and  then  steam  a 
thousand  miles  across  the  Bay  of  Bengal  to  Burma. 
Landing  at  Rangoon,  which  is  the  doorway  of  the 
land,  he  reembarks  upon  one  of  the  sumptuous  Irra- 
wady  River  boats  and  steams  northward  another 
thousand  miles  into  the  very  heart  of  the  country. 
Thus  without  leaving  the  eastern  empire  one  can 
spend  weeks  of  most  interesting  travel,  and  pass 
through  territories  inhabited  by  peoples  of  separate 
racial  types  and  of  totally  different  tongues.  Per- 
haps no  other  region  of  the  world  can  furnish  such 
a  variety  of  climes  and  such  marked  contrasts  of 
national  habits  and  costumes.  And  yet,  all  this 
vast  territory  has  been  brought  into  subjection  to 
the  British  crown  and  furnishes  facilities  and  con- 
veniences of  travel  which  are  really  marvellous  in 
the  East.  Burma  is  politically  and  industrially  a 

part  of  India. 

72 


BURMA,   THE   BEAUTIFUL  73 

It  is  a  rich  country,  with  four  magnificent  rivers 
reaching  nearly  its  whole  length,  furnishing  abun- 
dant facilities  for  cheap  travel  and  commerce,  and 
carrying  fertility  into  all  sections  of  the  land. 

It  is  the  land  of  rice,  of  teak,  and  of  oil.  These 
are  the  triple  sources  of  Burmese  industry,  com- 
merce, and  wealth.  Never  was  a  land  richer  than 
this  in  alluvial  soil,  in  refreshing  rains,  and  in  boun- 
tiful rivers.  It  is  one  great  expanse  of  living, 
paddy  green.  The  teak  timber  furnished  by  the 
mighty  forests  of  this  land  is  carried  to  many 
lands.  The  extent  of  this  trade  may  be  imagined 
from  the  statement  that  the  Bombay-Burma  Trading 
Company  in  Burma  employs  three  thousand  elephants 
for  hauling  its  timber  to  the  river.  Every  two 
elephants  are  under  the  care  of  three  men;  so  that 
there  are  forty-five  hundred  men  in  charge  of  these 
animals  alone. 

Burma  is  called  the  "  Land  of  Pagodas."  The 
first  object  which  attracts  the  eye  soon  after  the 
ship  enters  the  river,  and  while  still  twenty  miles 
from  the  harbour,  is  the  far-famed  pagoda  of  Schwey 
Dagon,  in  Rangoon.  Buddhism  is  preeminently 
the  faith  of  Burma.  All  the  people  have  been  for 
many  centuries  its  adherents.  And  the  pagoda  is 


74  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

the  outward  emblem  of  that  faith.  What  the  church 
is  to  Christianity,  and  the  temple  is  to  Hinduism, 
the  pagoda  (sometimes  called  "dagoba")  is  to  Bud- 
dhism. It  is  the  farthest  removed  from  the  Chris- 
tian conception  of  a  place  of  worship.  In  Christianity, 
large  edifices  are  erected  where  the  multitude  can 
meet  to  unite  in  public  worship.  In  Hinduism,  a 
temple  is  largely  the  abode  of  the  idol,  which  is  the 
outward  emblem  of  their  god.  In  it  there  is  no 
place  for  public  worship  or  for  an  assembled  audi- 
ence. In  Buddhism,  there  is  not  even  a  god  to 
worship,  so  that  there  is  no  interior  to  the  pagoda. 
It  is  like  the  pyramid  of  Egypt,  one  massive  solid 
structure,  but  of  an  elongated  bell  shape.  The  high- 
est part  of  it,  corresponding  to  the  handle  of  the 
bell,  is  called  "  hti,"  and  is  usually  covered  with 
precious  metal.  It  is  a  reliquary  rather  than  a 
place  of  worship ;  and  every  pagoda  of  note  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  receptacle  of  a  few  hairs  or  bones 
of  the  Buddha !  Indeed,  if  one  believe  the  members 
of  that  faith,  the  anatomy  of  that  great  man  was 
marvellous  and  is  still  very  promiscuously  distributed 
through  various  lands  of  the  East! 

The   Schwey   Dagon  pagoda  is  a  very  prominent 
object;  for  it  is  not  only  three  hundred  and  seventy 


BURMA,  THE  BEAUTIFUL  77 

feet  high,  but  is  also  built  on  an  artificial  mound 
which  is  a  hundred  and  seventy  feet  in  height. 
It  is  elaborately  decorated,  and  its  "  hti "  is  mostly 
of  solid  gold,  encrusted  with  precious  stones  pre- 
sented to  the  pagoda  by  King  Mindoon  Min.  But 
while  the  pagoda  itself  impresses  one  with  its  mas- 
sive proportions,  it  is  the  exquisite  group  of  num- 
berless little  shrines  or  temples  which  surround  the 
pagoda,  every  one  of  which  holds  one  or  more  large 
images  of  the  great  Buddha,  that  furnish  the  rich 
sense  of  beauty  and  charm  which  prevail.  These 
little  shrines  are  either  built  of  marble  or  of  richly 
carved  teak,  or  of  glass  mosaic;  and  every  one  tries 
to  excel  every  other  in  its  delicate  charm.  And 
upon  nearly  every  one  of  these  shrines  there  are 
sweet  little  bells,  which,  as  the  wind  blows,  seem  to 
respond  to  spirit  hands  and  ring  forth  their  gentle 
peals  of  sacred  music  to  the  great  founder  of  the  faith. 

Here,  also,  is  a  massive  bell  of  forty  tons,  —  the 
third  in  size  in  the  world.  It  was  once  carried  away 
by  the  British  and  lost  in  the  Rangoon  River. 
But  the  people  later  received  permission  to  search 
for  it.  They  found  it,  and  with  genuine  pride  and 
triumph  raised  it  and  restored  it  to  their  pagoda. 

It  is  one  of  the   peculiar   ironies   of   history   that 


78  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

in  this  land  of  the  Buddha,  who  was  the  greatest 
iconoclast,  and  who  not  only  abhorred  idolatry  but 
also  ignored  deity,  there  should  exist  to-day  num- 
berless images  of  him  in  every  town  and  hamlet. 
These  are  of  all  sizes,  from  the  immense  reclining 
Buddha  of  Pegu,  which  is  a  hundred  and  eighty- 
two  feet  long,  and  is  built  of  brick  and  mortar,  down 
to  the  tiniest  figures  carried  on  the  persons  of  indi- 
viduals. There  is  no  pagoda  or  shrine  in  Burma 
around  which  is  not  found  a  large  number  of  these 
images.  They  have  not  the  hideous  deformity  of 
Hindu  idolatry;  but  present  either  the  benign  and 
complacent,  or  the  calm  and  contemplative,  expres- 
sion which  cannot  fail  to  impress  itself  upon  the 
national  character  of  the  people.  And  one  may 
say,  with  confidence,  that  in  this  matter  the  truth 
of  the  proverb  is  verified,  —  "  Like  god,  like  people." 
One  may  leave  Rangoon  in  a  comfortable  train, 
and  in  about  eighteen  hours  reach  the  old  capital 
of  Upper  Burma,  the  beautiful  Mandalay,  which  is 
nearly  four  hundred  miles  distant.  The  same  jour- 
ney may  be  taken  by  the  river  Irrawady  if  one 
has  more  leisure  and  means ;  and  he  may  thus 
enjoy  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  sumptuous  river 
journeys  in  the  world. 


BURMA,  THE   BEAUTIFUL  79 

It  was  only  twenty  years  ago  that  this  part  of 
the  country  was  seized  by  the  British  without  blood- 
shed, and  the  foolish  and  dissolute  King  Theebaw 
was  made  prisoner  for  his  stupid  insolence,  and 
deported,  with  his  two  wives,  to  India,  where  they 
are  still  spending  their  days  in  retirement.  Upper 
Burma  has,  however,  put  on  new  beauty  and  pros- 
perity since  the  British  have  taken  it  over ;  and 
the  people  are  abundantly  satisfied  with  the  new 
regime.  Mandalay  has  also  its  famed  Arrakan 
pagoda,  which  claims  to  have  the  only  contem- 
porary likeness  of  Buddha  on  earth.  It  is  an  im- 
mense brazen  image;  and  it  is  the  occupation  of 
the  devout  to  gild  the  same  with  gold-leaf.  At 
least  a  dozen  men  and  women  can  be  seen  thus 
constantly  expressing  their  devotion.  In  a  few 
years  there  will  be  tons  of  gold  thus  pasted  upon 
his  sacred  body !  But  alas  for  the  vandalism  which 
lights  up  its  shrine  and  the  calm  face  of  Buddha  by 
electricity ! 

Another  famous  pagoda  of  Mandalay  -is  the  so- 
called  "  Four  Hundred  and  Fifty  Pagodas  of  the 
Law."  This  is  a  kind  of  Buddhist  bible  in  stone. 
It  has  four  hundred  and  fifty  small  shrines,  every 
one  of  which  has  a  large  polished  granite  slab,  upon 


8o  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

which  is  engraved  a  precept  of  the  faith ;  and  the 
whole  make  up  a  complete  body  of  the  law,  which 
every  member  of  the  faith  may  come  and  read  at 
his  leisure. 

Here,  as  at  all  shrines,  we  notice  the  beautiful 
custom  of  these  Burmese  people  in  practising  their 
public  devotion  with  bouquets  of  flowers  in  their 
hands.  It  is  touching  to  see  this  constant  blending 
of  beauty  with  piety.  The  abundant  use  of  the 
candle,  also,  in  their  worship  reminds  us  of  the 
Romish  ritual. 

We  are  taken  through  the  royal  gardens  and  the 
deserted  palaces  of  Mandalay,  which  are  constructed 
largely,  as  many  of  the  houses  of  Burma  are,  of  ex- 
quisitely carved  teak,  rising  here  and  there  in  pointed 
spires,  which  are  indeed  beautiful,  but  which  give 
the  impression  of  the  so-called  gingerbread  style  of 
architecture. 

Upon  one  who  has  lived  for  many  years  in  India 
there  are  two  things  in  Burma  which  make  a  deep 
and  a  very  pleasing  impression. 

In  the  first  place,  the  charm  of  the  Burmese 
woman  is  marked.  She  has  none  of  the  cringing, 
retiring,  self-conscious  mien  of  the  Hindu  women. 
She  is  possessed  of  liberty  and  of  equality  with  man. 


BURMA,  THE  BEAUTIFUL  83 

Her  appearance  in  society  is  both  modest  and  self- 
respecting.  She  is  conscious  of  her  own  beauty, 
and  knows  how  to  enhance  it  with  exquisite  taste. 
She  is  a  great  lover  of  colours,  as  is  the  Hindu 
woman.  But  the  latter  loves  only  the  primitive  and 
elementary  colours;  the  former,  on  the  other  hand, 
cultivates  the  delicate  shades,  and  adorns  herself 
with  silks  of  various  tints,  such  as  attract  and  fasci- 
nate. It  is  for  this  reason  that  Burma  is  called 
"  The  Silken  East."  Her  dress  is  clumsy  and  un- 
couth in  form,  and,  in  this  respect,  is  incomparably 
inferior  to  the  graceful  cloth  of  India.  But  the 
woman  herself  is  lovely,  and  the  taste  which  she  dis- 
plays in  her  personal  adornment  is  very  attractive. 
It  does  not  surprise  one  to  know  that  not  a  few 
Europeans  marry  these  Burmese  ladies  of  beauty. 
But  above  her  beauty  is  that  pose  of  freedom  and 
self-respect  which  commends  her  everywhere.  Nor 
is  this  assumed.  The  woman  of  Burma  is  "  the 
man  of  the  family."  In  business,  and  in  all  forms  of 
trade,  she  is  far  superior  to  her  lord,  and  much  of 
the  support  and  the  honour  of  the  family  depends 
upon  her  industry,  cleverness,  and  independence. 
Certainly  Buddhism  has  produced,  in  many  respects, 
a  higher  type  of  womanhood  than  has  Hinduism. 


84  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Another  aspect  of  life  in  Burma  is  one  that  in- 
stantly captivates  one  who  goes  there  from  India. 
It  is  a  land  free  from  the  trammels  of  caste.  The 
trail  of  this  serpent  is  upon  all  things  in  India.  It 
divides  men  at  all  points,  and  robs  social  life  of 
much  that  is  sweet  and  beautiful  in  other  lands. 
The  great  Gautama  vehemently  attacked  the  Brah- 
manical  caste  system,  and  one  is  glad  to  see  in 
Burma  that  that  faith  has  adhered  to  this  primitive 
enmity.  One  rejoices  to  see  at  the  temples  and  on 
the  public  streets,  everywhere,  common  eating  and 
drinking  houses,  where  the  people  meet  for  refresh- 
ment and  for  quiet  social  chat,  without  any  thought 
of  caste  to  disturb  their  relationship  and  mar  their 
convivial  pleasures. 

That  which  impresses  the  observant  Christian 
visitor  to  that  land  is  the  triumph  and  wonderful 
achievement  of  missionary  effort  there  during  the 
last  half  century. 

All  know  the  works,  the  sufferings,  and  the  results 
attained  by  that  great  prophet  of  Burma,  Adoniram 
Judson.  He  was  a  saint  of  the  heroic  mould,  and 
his  influence  will  affect  the  history  of  that  people 
for  centuries  to  come. 

The   American    Baptist    Mission   overshadows,  by 


BURMA,  THE  BEAUTIFUL  85 

its  numbers  and  success,  all  other  bodies  of  mission- 
aries in  the  land.  And  at  the  present  time  their 
splendid  force  of  workers  is  making  a  deep  impress 
upon  the  community. 

But  their  success  has  been  mostly  achieved  among 
a  very  peculiar  hill-tribe  of  that  country, — the  Karens. 
It  was  long  after  the  Baptists  had  begun  work  there 
that  this  low  hill-tribe,  of  less  than  two  million 
people,  was  in  the  lowest  depths  of  barbarism. 
Their  language  was  not  reduced  to  writing,  and 
consequently,  they  had  no  literature  whatever.  But 
they  had  one  interesting  tradition.  It  had  come 
down  to  them,  generation  after  generation,  that  their 
bible  had  been  lost,  and  that  some  day  the  Great 
Spirit  would  send  a  fair  brother  from  the  West  to 
restore  unto  them  the  message  of  God  which  had 
disappeared.  The  "  Fair  Brother "  came  in  the 
person  of  the  American  missionary;  and  his  mes- 
sage was  received  in  the  assured  faith  that  it  was 
divinely  sent  and  was  the  long-lost  tradition  of  their 
tribe.  From  that  day  forward,  thousands  of  the 
Karen  tribe  have  everywhere  accepted  the  Gospel  of 
the  Christ,  until  there  are,  at  the  present  time,  con- 
nected with  that  mission  alone,  more  than  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  Karen  converts. 


86  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

And  this  is  by  no  means  all  of  the  wonderful 
story  of  the  regeneration  of  this  barbarous  tribe. 
Either  by  a  very  wise  missionary  statesmanship,  or 
by  a  rare  inspiration,  such  as  we  do  not  see  else- 
where in  the  East,  these  people  have  almost  entirely 
assumed  the  financial  burdens  of  their  own  religious 
training  and  institutions,  and  are  always  quick,  even 
beyond  their  means,  to  respond  to  every  Gospel 
claim  upon  their  purse.  The  story  of  their  offer- 
ings, in  view  of  their  extreme  poverty,  is  marvellous 
in  its  self-denial  and  outgoing  generosity.  The 
writer  spent  a  few  days  at  the  missionary  centre  in 
the  outskirts  of  Rangoon.  Upon  that  compound 
there  was  a  memorial  church  that  had  cost  $30,- 
ooo,  of  which  the  Karen  Christians  had  given 
all,  save  a  grant  made  by  government  for  a  few 
adjoining  class-rooms.  Three  bungalows  and  other 
buildings  of  value  are  also  found  there,  and  the 
whole  property  is  owned,  not  by  the  mission,  but 
by  the  Karens  themselves.  Ten  miles  away  from 
this  is  the  largest  theological  seminary  in  the  East, 
with  more  than  one  hundred  and  forty  students 
under  training.  For  the  maintenance  of  this,  again, 
those  poor  Karen  Christians  gladly  impose  upon 
themselves  a  family  tax,  and  have  the  sweet  con- 


BURMA,  THE   BEAUTIFUL  $7 

sciousness  that  their  youth  are  being  trained  for 
Christian  service  through  their  own  self-denying 
endeavour. 

These  people  were  in  social  scale  so  low  that  they 
had  practically  no  music  of  their  own.  They  have 
therefore  readily  taken  to  western  music.  And  it  is 
astonishing  to  hear  how  well  they  sing  our  western 
tunes,  and  even  render  solos  and  quartettes  at  public 
European  functions  in  a  way  that  calls  forth  hearty 
encores.  It  is  verily  the  birth  of  a  nation  in  a  day. 
So  that  in  this  land  of  many  wonders  the  movement 
among  the  Karen  people  seems  to  be  the  most  won- 
derful of  all. 

Among  the  Karens,  Ko  San  Ye  stands  forth  as  a 
unique  figure  of  intense  interest.  He  has  been  called 
the  "  Moody  "  of  Burma.  He  is  absolutely  illiterate. 
When  about  thirty  years  old,  he  lost  his  wife  and  his 
only  child ;  and  finding  no  comfort  in  his  ancestral 
demonolatry,  he  turned  to  Buddhism  for  relief  and 
retired  to  a  mountain  retreat  and  became  known  and 
esteemed  among  his  people  as  a  devout  ascetic  and  a 
holy  man.  With  the  offerings  of  his  people  he  built 
two  pagodas  and  a  monastery.  But  his  soul  found  no 
rest  there.  In  1890,  he  was  baptized  as  a  Christian, 
with  one  hundred  and  forty  of  his  followers.  He  then 


88  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

obtained  a  grant  of  twenty  thousand  acres  of  waste 
land  from  government,  and  established  a  village  which 
now  numbers  several  hundred  houses.  His  influence 
over  his  own  people  is  amazing,  and  is  the  result  of 
superstitious  reverence  and  awe. 

He  regretted  that  his  ignorance  prevented  him  from 
preaching  the  Gospel ;  but  he  thought  that  his  influ- 
ence over  the  people  should  be  rightly  used  in  the 
Lord's  service.  So  he  devoted  himself  to  the  collec- 
tion of  funds  for  religious  purposes  among  his  people. 
And  in  this  work  he  has  had  almost  fatal  success,  for 
his  fellow-Christian  Karens  have  responded  to  his 
appeals  for  money  to  the  extent  of  at  least  $130,000. 
In  view  of  the  exceeding  poverty  of  the  people,  this 
sum  seems  almost  fabulous.  Mr.  Ko  San  Ye  is  known 
by  all  to  be  perfectly  disinterested  in  the  use  of  the 
money  intrusted  to  him.  Not  a  cent  sticks  to  his 
hands ;  and  he  reverently  and  truthfully  speaks  of  it 
as  the  "  Lord's  money."  But  his  judgment  is  not 
commensurate  with  his  piety.  Even  the  most  friendly 
cannot  say  that  he  has  wisely  administered  this  sacred 
trust  of  his  poor  brethren.  He  has  erected  churches, 
schools,  and  rest-houses  which  are  altogether  too 
sumptuous  for  the  people.  He  spent  thousands  in 
the  purchase  of  a  fine  steam-launch  for  the  convenience 


BURMA,   THE   BEAUTIFUL  89 

of  his  people  on  the  river  side.  He  then  purchased  a 
rice-mill  which  brings  a  fair  income  to  the  mission. 
He  has  added  to  these  two  fine  and  expensive  auto- 
mobiles, in  the  smaller  of  which  the  writer  had,  for 
him,  the  unique  pleasure  of  a  delightful  spin  through 
the  city  of  Rangoon  and  its  suburbs,  under  the  guid- 
ance of  a  Karen  chauffeur !  It  was  his  first  automobile 
ride ;  and  to  think  of  it  as  being  enjoyed  in  a  vehicle 
bought  by  poor  Christians  of  Burma !  Strange  to  say, 
the  people  continue  to  repose  implicit  confidence  in 
him,  even  to  the  extent  of  mortgaging  their  property, 
in  order  to  add  to  this  public  fund.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  this  good  man  may  soon  submit  more  to  mission- 
ary guidance. 

Ko  San  Ye  is  but  an  interesting  episode  in  the 
wonderful  progress  of  a  nation  from  the  depth  of  bar- 
barism to  Christian  privilege  and  civilized  life.  The 
missionaries  often  dare  not  have  him  present  during 
the  baptism  of  new  converts,  lest  they  should  think 
that  they  were  baptized  in  the  name  of  Ko  San  Ye 
rather  than  in  the  name  of  Christ !  And  yet  it  is  said 
that  the  two  leading  characteristics  of  this  strange 
man  are  his  humility  and  his  unselfishness ! 

The  Karens,  with  all  their  lowliness  and  barbarous 
antecedents,  are  excellent  material  to  work  upon,  and 


90  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

are  responding  with  wonderful  eagerness  to  the  mis- 
sionary endeavour  made  in  their  behalf,  and  are  already, 
in  many  noble  qualities,  revealing  to  the  native  Chris- 
tians of  the  East  the  way  of  ascent  to  nobility  of  char- 
acter and  to  the  highest  Christian  possession. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE    HINDU    CASTE    SYSTEM 

THE  word  "  caste  "  is  derived  from  the  Latin  term 
castus,  which  signified  purity  of  breed.  It  was  the 
term  used  by  Vasco  da  Gama  and  his  .fellow- Portu- 
guese adventurers,  four  centuries  ago,  as  they  landed 
upon  the  southwestern  coast  of  India  and  began  to 
study  the  social  and  religious  condition  of  the  peo- 
ple. The  word  expressed  to  them  the  remarkable 
bond  which  held  the  people  together;  the  subse- 
quent generations  of  foreigners  and  English-speaking 
natives  have  adopted  it  as  the  most  appropriate  term 
to  express  the  unique  system  which  prevails  all  over 
India.  No  other  people,  in  the  history  of  the  world, 
have  erected  a  social  structure  comparable  to  this 
of  India.  For  twenty-five  centuries  it  has  controlled 
the  life  of  nearly  one-sixth  of  the  human  race.  Other 
countries  have,  or  have  had,  tribal  connections,  class 
distinctions,  trade  unions,  religious  sects,  philan- 
thropic fraternities,  social  guilds,  and  various  other 

organizations.     But  India  is  the  only  land  where  all 

91 


INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

these  are  practically  welded  together  into  one  con- 
sistent and  mighty  whole,  which  dictates  the  every 
detail  of  human  relationship  and  controls  the  whole 
destiny  of  man  for  time  and  eternity.  For  it  should 
be  remembered  that  India  has  consistently  declined 
Y''to  recognize  any  distinction  between  the  social  and 
the  religious.  These  are  the  reverse  and  the  ob- 
verse of  life ;  they  are  brought  to  the  same  rules  and 
must  yield  obedience  to  the  same  authority.  Reli- 
gion, to  the  Hindu,  permeates  the  whole  social 
domain;  aed  >social  order  draws  its  sanctions  from, 
and  is  enforced  by  the  penalties  of,  religion.  To 
marry  outside  one's  caste,  to  eat  food  cooked  by  an 
outcast,  to  cross  the  ocean,  to  delay  unduly  the 
marriage  of  a  daughter,  —  these,  and  a  thousand 
other  delinquencies  which  may  seem  absolutely 
harmless  to  a  Westerner,  are  not  only  regarded  as 
social  irregularities,  but  also  as  sins  whose  penalties 
will  harass  the  soul  beyond  the  grave  or  burning- 
ground.  Herein  does  caste  reveal  its  uniqueness, 
and  from  this  does  it  pass  on  to  the  exercise  of  its 
extraordinary  tyranny  over  the  people. 


THE   HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  93 


The  origin  of  caste  is  a  subject  of  much  uncer-< 
tainty  and  debate.  In  ancient  Vedic  times,  caste  IM 
was  unknown.  Society,  in  those  days,  was  more 
elastic  and  free,  and  resembled  that  of  other  lands. 
And  yet  it  showed  a  tendency  toward  a  mechanical 
division  which  later  grew  into  the  caste  system.  It 
was  not  until  the  time  of  the  great  lawgiver,  Manu, 
about  twenty-five  centuries  ago,  that  the  system 
crystallized  into  laws,  and  the  organization  became 
so  compact  as  to  force  itself  upon  all  the  people  and 
become  an  integral  part  of  recognized  Hindu  law. 
Manu  and  other  lawgivers  found  the  basis  of  caste 
rules  in  the  traditions  of  an  ancient  Brahman  tribe. 
These  they  elaborated  and  enforced. 

The  ancient  name  for  caste  was  varna,  which 
means  "  colour."  This  name  is  suggestive,  and  has 
led  many  authorities  to  trace  back  the  whole  system 
to  original  race-purity,  as  indicated  by  the  colour  of 
the  skin.  The  first  incursion  of  the  fair  Aryans 
from  the  northwest  settled  down,  it  is  claimed,  in 
the  northern  portions  of  the  country.  They  gradu- 
ally mingled  and  intermarried  with  the  dark-skinned 
Dravidian  and  aboriginal  population,  with  the  natural 


94  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

consequence  of  a  loss  of  race-purity  and  of  whiteness 
of  complexion.  A  subsequent  descent  of  a  new 
Aryan  host  upon  the  plains  of  northern  India  found 
the  descendants  of  their  predecessors  of  darker 
hue  than  themselves,  which  bespoke  their  race  de- 
generacy; so  they  kept  aloof  from  them.  Later, 
however,  they  began  to  mingle  with  the  former  in- 
habitants, so  that  their  descendants  partly  lost  the 
ancestral  complexion.  A  still  later  Aryan  incursion 
declined  to  have  intercourse  with  the  descendants 
of  those  who  last  preceded  them.  Thus  we  have 
four  classes  divided  upon  the  basis  of  colour,  or 
varna,  which  may  correspond  with  the  four  great 
original  castes  of  India. 

The  traditional  theory  of  the  Hindus  themselves, 
in  reference  to  caste  origin,  is  admirably  simple  and 
quite  adequate  to  satisfy  ninety-nine  per  cent  of  the 
devotees  of  that  faith  to-day.  Brahma,  the  first  god 
of  the  Hindu  triad,  the  Creator,  was  the  immediate 
source  and  founder  of  the  caste  order;  for  he  caused, 
it  is  said,  the  august  Brahman  to  proceed  out  of  his 
divine  mouth,  while  the  warlike  and  royal  Kshatriya 
emanated  from  his  shoulders,  the  trading,  commercial 
Vaisya,  from  his  thighs,  and  the  menial  Sudra,  from 
his  feet.  And  from  these  four  primal  classes  have 


THE   HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  95 

descended,  through  myriads  of  permutations  and  min- 
glings,  the  present  hyHra-headed  caste  organization. 

But  modern  and  scientific  students  of  the  social 
order  of  India  entirely  discard  and  ignore  all  Hindu 
mythical  explanations  and  Puranic  legends  concern- 
ing this  subject,  and  endeavour  to  trace  the  present 
system  to  its  sources  and  primal  causes  through 
patient  historic  research  and  through  a  most  elabo- 
rate system  of  anthropometric  and  ethnographic  ex- 
aminations conducted  all  over  the  land.  The  subject, 
however,  is  so  vast  and  complicated  that  authorities 
upon  the  subject  are  still  considerably  at  variance  in 
their  theories  of  origin.  We  may  conveniently 
classify  the  prevailing  theories,  according  to  their  i— 
emphasis,  as  follows  :  — 

(a)  The  Religious  Theory.  —  This  gives  emphasis 
to  the  religious  influence  as  the  dominant  one  in  the 
formation  of  the  social  order  of  the  land.  It  is  main- 
tained that  the  clever  and  unscrupulous  Brahman  has, 
to  a  large  extent,  originated  it  and  nursed  it  into  its 
present  wonderful  proportions,  in  order  to  create  and 
perpetuate  his  own  supremacy  among  the  people  of 
India.  As  the  spiritual  head  of  Hinduism,  and  the 
recognized  source  of  religious  power  among  its 
devotees,  he  required  and  devised  this  organization, 


96  INDIA:    ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

with  himself  as  its  undisputed  head,  and  with  a  dis- 
tinct recognition  by  all  others  of  his  supremacy  in 
the  Hindu  faith  as  a  conditio  sine  qua  non  of  their 
admission  as  castes  into  the  Hindu  system.  Up  to 
the  present  day,  the  public  acceptance  of  the  supreme 
religious  authority  of  the  Brahman  is  one  of  the 
two  conditions  which  qualify  any  people  to  admis- 
sion into  the  sisterhood  of  Hindu  castes.  The  other 
condition  is  separation  from  all  other  peoples  in 
matters  which  will  be  hereafter  mentioned. 

There  are  potent  reasons  for  accepting  this  theory ; 
for  the  strongly  entrenched  position  which  religion  still 
holds  in  the  system,  both  as  a  basis  and  as  a  regulator, 
notwithstanding  other  antagonizing  influences,  is  a 
testimony  to  its  original  place  and  power  therein. 
Any  social  order  whose  direction  is  regulated  by 
social  injunctions  and  whose  forms  and  ritual  are 
enforced  by  religious  penalties  must  be  recognized  as 
a  mighty  religious  system. 

(V)  The  Tribal  Theory.  —  Moreover,  there  were 
many  aboriginal  tribes  which  entered  the  ranks  of 
Hinduism  through  the  formation  of  new  castes.  Mr. 
Risley,  in  the  Census  of  1901,  refers  to  such.  (See  Vol. 
I,  p.  521).  They  gradually  abandoned  their  old  tribal 
customs  and  entered  upon  new  paths  which  brought 


THE   HINDU   CASTE   SYSTEM  97 

them  into  conformity  with  Hindu  usages.  Or  in 
some  cases  they  preserved  tribal  habits  and  even  their 
tribal  totems,  and  baptized  them  into  the  new  faith  and 
thus  became  separate  castes  in  the  Hindu  order. 

As  in  the  past,  so  "  all  over  India  at  the  present 
moment  there  is  going  on  a  process  of  the  gradual 
and  insensible  transformation  of  tribes  into  castes. 
The  stages  of  this  operation  are  in  themselves  difficult 
to  trace.  .  .  .  They  usually  set  up  as  Rajputs,  their 
first  step  being  to  start  a  Brahman  priest,  who  invents 
for  them  a  mythical  ancestor,  supplies  them  with  a 
family  miracle  connected  with  the  locality  where  their 
tribes  are  settled,  and  discovers  that  they  belong  to 
some  hitherto  unheard-of  clan  of  the  great  Rajput 
community."  (Census  1901,  Vol.  II,  p.  519.)  It  is 
precisely  the  same  process  which  brought  the  many 
Dravidian  and  even  more  primitive  tribes  of  South 
India  into  the  Hindu  fold ;  and  it  is  a  curious  fact 
that  these  same  people  are  to-day  the  greatest  sticklers 
in  the  land  for  caste  and  its  myriad  rules. 

(c)  The  Social  Theory.  —  Some  hold  with  Sir 
Denzil  Ibbetson,  in  the  Census  Report  of  1881,  "that 
caste  is  far  more  a  social  than  a  religious  institution ; 
that  it  has  no  necessary  connection  whatever  with  the 
Hindu  religion,  further  than  that  under  that  religion 


98  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

certain  ideas  and  customs  common  to  all  primitive 
nations  have  been  developed  and  perpetuated  in  an 
unusual  degree."  This  is  acknowledged  to  be  an 
exaggerated  statement.  It  may  possibly  be  true  that 
"caste  has  no  necessary  connection  with  Hinduism," 
but  it  is  emphatically  true  that  caste,  as  understood 
by  all,  does  not  exist  apart  from  that  faith. 

It  is,  however,  a  fact  that  divisions  have  occurred 
within  castes,  owing  to  the  development  of  slight  social 
differences  between  the  members.  For  instance,  sev- 
eral castes  have  been  created  by  the  degradation 
of  members  of  the  existing  castes  on  account  of  their 
marriage  of  widows.  The  Pandarams  of  South  India 
are  held  in  distinction  among  the  begging  castes 
because  of  their  abstention  from  meat,  alcohol,  and 
widow  marriage.  Indeed,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
a  former  caste  status  has  been  more  frequently  lost  by, 
and  degradation  to  a  new  caste  has  been  consequent 
upon,  the  adoption  of  widow  marriage,  than  through 
almost  any  other  act.  And,  at  present,  this  prohi- 
bition of  the  marriage  of  widows,  including  child 
widows,  is  the  most  tenaciously  and  unrighteously 
enforced  caste  custom  in  India. 

(d]  The  Occupational  Theory. —  All  regard  fellow- 
ship in  the  same  trade,  or  occupation,  as  the  most 


THE  HINDU  CASTE   SYSTEM  99 

prolific  source  of  caste  alignment,  in  modern  times  at 
least.  Ibbetson  contends  that  "  the  whole  basis  of 
diversity  of  caste  is  diversity  of  occupation.  The  old 
division  into  Brahman,  Kshatriya,  Vaisya,  Sudra,  and 
Mlechha,  or  outcast,  who  is  below  the  Sudra,  is  but  a 
division  into  the  priest,  the  warrior,  the  husbandman, 
the  artisan,  and  the  menial.  .  .  .  William  Priest,  John 
King,  Edward  Farmer,  and  James  Smith  are  but  the 
survivals  in  England  of  the  four  varnas  of  Manu." 
(Census  of  1881.)  This  statement  needs  serious  qual- 
ification. Farming,  which  is  followed  to-day  by  a\ 
majority  of  the  population  of  India,  is  an  occupation 
which  is  subsidized  by  no  caste  and  is  followed  prac- 
tically by  the  members  of  all  castes.  The  Brahmans 
are  the  only  ones  who  are  degraded  by  following  the 
plough.  And  there  is  a  growing  number  of  trades, 
introduced  by  modern  civilization,  which  have  not  yet 
been  touched  by  the  caste  system,  and  which  the  enter- 
prising youth  of  different  grades  of  Hindu  society  are 
entering  with  eagerness.  And  yet,  while  this  is  a  fact, 
it  is  equally  true  that  the  functional  type  of  castes  is 
developing  and  spreading  much  more  rapidly  than  any 
other.  In  the  town  of  Madura,  a  few  of  the  families, 
from  the  weaver  caste,  opened  a  remunerative  trade  in 
the  manufacture  of  fireworks.  They  at  first  began 


too  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

it  as  an  extra,  to  add  to  their  very  meagre  income. 
Gradually  it  encroached  upon  their  time  until  it 
became  their  sole  occupation.  To-day  they  are  pros- 
pering in  their  new  trade.  But  to  them  and  their 
castemen  their  change  of  trade  involves  the  transfer  of 
caste  relations.  No  longer  being  weavers,  they  do 
not  see  how  they  can  continue  to  be  bound  by  ties 
to  their  former  castemen  or  former  fellow-tradesmen ; 
hence  the  old  connubial  and  convivial  bonds  of  caste 
are  relaxing,  and  the  weavers  decline  to  have  fellow- 
ship with  them  as  formerly  on  these  lines.  Thus,  in 
all  parts  of  the  land,  we  have  present-day  illustrations 
of  the  creation  of  functional  castes.  And  it  is  an 
interesting  inquiry  whether  this  mania  for  creating  a 
new  caste  for  every  rising  trade  and  occupation  will 
finally  overcome  and  absorb  all  occupations  created 
by  the  demands  of  modern  life  and  advancing  civiliza- 
tion, or  whether  it  will  in  time  succumb  to  the  spirit 
of  modern  progress  until  all  occupations  shall  be  eman- 
cipated from  the  tyranny  of  caste  and  shall  be  open  to 
all  men  who  desire  to  enter  them. 

(e)  The  Crossing  Theory.  —  According  to  Manu's 
Dharma  Sastra  one  might  be  led  to  believe,  as  Hindus 
do  stoutly  maintain,  that  nearly  all  modern  castes  have 
been  created  by  interbreeding.  Those  caste  laws  of 


THE   HINDU   CASTE   SYSTEM  101 

twenty-five  centuries  ago  taught  that  the  offspring  of 
the  union  of  a  woman  of  higher  with  a  man  of  lower  / 
caste  could  belong  to  the  caste  of  neither  parent,  and  ' 
therefore  formed  a  new  and  a  separate  caste.  The 
names  of  castes  thus  formed  are  given  with  much 
detail  in  Manu's  works.  But  it  does  not  require  much 
wisdom  for  one  to  perceive  the  absurdity  of  the  work- 
ing out  of  such  a  system,  and  the  impossibility  con- 
nected with  it  as  an  adequate  basis  for  the  caste 
organization  of  the  present  day.  Yet  interbreeding 
has  doubtless  been  an  important  element  in  the  elabo- 
ration of  the  stupendous  caste  organization.  We  have 
abundant  illustration  of  this  very  process  and  its  results 
in  modern  times.  Among  the  Dravidians,  especially, 
there  are  many  castes  which  trace  their  origin  to 
miscegenation.  ^  Among  the  Munda  tribe  we  find  nine 
such  divisions;  also  five  among  the  Mahilis,  who  them- 
selves claim  their  descent  from  the  union  of  a  Munda 
with  a  Santhal  woman. 

This  will  not  be  unexpected  when  it  is  remembered 
that  endogamy  is  the  prime  law  of  most  Hindu  castes ; 
and  this,  too,  in  a  land  where  immorality  and  adultery 
are  so  prevalent.  Other  sources  of  Hindu  castes  are 
mentioned.  Some,  like  the  Mahrattas,  have  behind 
them  national  traditions,  and  a  history  to  which  they 


102  INDIA:    ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

refer  and  of  which  they  are  proud.  Others,  still,  have, 
by  migrating  from  the  home  of  the  mother  caste,  sev- 
ered their  connection  from  the  parent  stock  and  have 
formed  a  separate  and  independent  caste. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  state  that  not  one  of  the  above 
theories  is  adequate  to  account  for  all  the  existing 
castes  of  the  land.  These  forces  have  entered,  with 
varying  degrees  of  efficiency,  into  their  structure, — one 
being  dominant  as  a  causal  power  in  one,  and  another 
in  another.  And  yet  it  may  be  stated  that  of  all  these 
caste-producing  forces  religion  and  occupation  have 
had  marked  preeminence ;  and  they  are  more  influential 
to-day  than  ever  before. 

II 

We  shall  next  consider  the  various  Characteristics 
or  Manifestations  of  Caste.  The  system  is  a  very 
flexible  one ;  and  yet  its  characteristics  are  practically 
the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Perhaps  the  best 
way  to  clearly  describe  these  to  a  western  reader  is  to 
quote  at  length  what  we  may  call  Mr.  Risley's  capital 
western  paraphrase  of  the  system  in  BlackwoocTs  Mag- 
azine, a  decade  ago.  "  Let  us,"  he  writes,  "imagine 
the  great  tribe  of  Smith  ...  in  which  all  the  subtle 
nuances  of  social  merit  and  demerit  have  been  set  and 


THE   HINDU  CASTE   SYSTEM  103 

hardened  into  positive  regulations  affecting  the  inter- 
marriage of  families.  The  caste  thus  formed  would 
trace  its  origin  back  to  a  mythical  eponymous  ancestor, 
the  first  Smith,  who  converted  the  rough  stone  hatchet 
into  the  bronze  battle-axe  and  took  his  name  from  the 
smooth '  weapons  that  he  wrought  for  his  tribe. 
Bound  together  by  this  tie  of  common  descent  they 
would  recognize  as  the  cardinal  doctrine  of  their  com- 
munity the  rule  that  a  Smith  must  always  marry  a 
Smith,  and  could  by  no  possibility  marry  a  Brown  or 
a  Jones.  But,  over  and  above  this  general  canon,  two 
other  modes  or  principles  of  grouping  within  the  caste 
would  be  conspicuous.  First  of  all,  the  entire  caste  of 
Smith  would  be  split  up  into  an  indefinite  number  of 
in-marrying  clans,  based  upon  all  sorts  of  trivial  dis- 
tinctions. Brewing  Smiths  and  baking  Smiths, 
hunting  Smiths  and  shooting  Smiths,  temperance 
Smiths  and  licensed  victualler  Smiths,  Smiths  with 
double-barrelled  names  and  hyphens,  Smiths  with 
double-barrelled  names  without  hyphens,  Conservative 
Smiths  and  Radical  Smiths,  tinker  Smiths,  tailor 
Smiths,  Smiths  of  Mercia,  Smiths  of  Wessex, —  all  these 
and  all  other  imaginable  varieties  of  the  tribe  Smith 
would  be,  as  it  were,  crystallized  by  an  inexorable  law 
forbidding  the  members  of  any  of  these  groups  to 


104  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

marry  beyond  the  circle  marked  out  by  the  clan 
name.  . .  .  Thus  a  Hyphen-Smith  could  only  marry  a 
Hyphen-Smith,  and  so  on.  Secondly,  and  this  is  the 
point  which  I  more  especially  wish  to  bring  out  here, 
running  through  this  endless  series  of  clans  we  should 
find  another  principle  at  work  breaking  up  each  clan 
into  three  or  four  smaller  groups  which  form  a  sort  of 
ascending  scale  of  social  distinction.  Thus  the  clan 
of  Hyphen-Smiths,  which  we  take  to  be  the  cream  of 
the  caste  —  the  Smiths  who  have  attained  the  crowning 
glory  of  double  names  securely  welded  together  by 
hyphens  —  would  be  again  divided  into,  let  us  say, 
Anglican,  Dissenting,  and  Salvationist  Hyphen- 
Smiths,  taking  ordinary  rank  in  that  order.  Now  the 
rule  of  these  groups  would  be  that  a  man  of  the 
Anglican  could  marry  a  woman  of  any  group,  that  a 
man  of  the  Dissenting  group  could  marry  into  his  own 
or  the  lowest  group,  while  the  Salvationist  Smith  could 
only  marry  into  his  own  group.  A  woman  could, 
under  no  circumstance,  marry  down  into  a  group  below 
her.  Other  things  being  equal,  it  is  clear  that  two- 
thirds  of  the  Anglican  girls  would  get  no  husbands,  and 
two-thirds  of  the  Salvationist  men  no  wives.  These 
are  some  of  the  restrictions  which  would  control  the 
process  of  match-making  among  the  Smiths  if  they 


THE   HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  105 

were  organized  in  a  caste  of  the  Indian  type.  There 
would  also  be  restrictions  as  to  food.  The  different 
in-marrying  clans  would  be  precluded  from  marrying 
together,  and  their  possibilities  of  reciprocal  entertain- 
ment would  be  limited  to  those  products  of  the  con- 
fectioners' shops  into  the  composition  of  which  water, 
the  most  fatal  and  effective  vehicle  of  ceremonial 
impurity,  had  not  entered.  Fire  purifies,  water  pollutes. 
It  would  follow  in  fact  that  they  could  eat  chocolates 
and  other  sweetmeats  together,  but  could  not  drink 
tea  or  coffee,  and  could  only  partake  of  ices  if  they 
were  made  without  water  and  were  served  on  metal, 
not  porcelain,  plates." 

Mr.  Risley  might  have  added  considerably  to  these 
restrictions  and  limitations  without  exhausting  the 
catalogue. 

Let  us  briefly  enumerate  those  elements  which  enter 
into  caste.  The  first  and  the  most  important  is  inter- 
marriage within  the  caste.  None  except  members  of 
totemistic  castes  can,  with  impunity,  look  beyond  the 
sacred  borders  of  their  own  caste  for  conjugal  bliss. 
So  long  as  castes  remain  endogamous  they  will  preserve 
their  integrity,  and  their  foundations  will  never  be 
removed.  This  is  ihe/ons  et  origo  of  caste  perpetuity. 
All  other  characteristics  may  pass  away ;  if  this  remain, 


io6  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

all  is  well  with  the  organization.  And  it  is  this  which 
remains  with  devilish  pertinacity  and  mischief-working 
power  in  the  infant  Native  Christian  Church  of  India. 
It  is  this  same  extreme  evil  which  the  social  reformers 
of  India  are  trying  to  puncture.  But  all  that  they 
dare  to  struggle  and  hope  for  is  the  right  of  members 
of  subdivisions  of  any  caste  to  intermarry.  A  genera- 
tion ago,  there  were  1886  divisions  in  the  Brahman 
caste  alone,  no  two  of  which  could  enjoy  connubial  or 
convivial  privileges  together.  It  is  not  up  to  the  most 
sanguine  reformer  of  India  to  seek  that  all  Brahmans 
enjoy  the  right  of  intermarrying, —  he  only  asks  that 
the  divisions  among  the  Brahmans  may  be  reduced, 
and  intermarriage  may  be  sanctioned  among  sub- 
divisions. Yet  even  this  meagre  quest  is  not  likely  to 
be  gratified.  This  is  not  surprising,  for  the  defenders 
of  the  system  well  know  that  if  this  stronghold  of 

.  caste  is  at  all  weakened,  the  whole  will  speedily  yield 
to  modern  attack.  This,  doubtless,  is  the  reason  why 
orthodox  Hindus  are  so  vehement  in  their  opposition 
to  any  and  all  endeavour  to  remove  the  many  disabili- 
ties and  cruelties  which  the  marriage  regulations  of 
the  land  inflict  upon  Hindu  women.  There  is  no  land 

/  under  the  sun  whose  weaker  sex  suffer  more  from 
marital  legislation  than  India;  and  yet  the  people 


THE  HINDU  CASTE   SYSTEM  107 

can  do  nothing  practically  to  remedy  the  crying 
evils  of  the  same,  simply  because  the  mighty  engine 
of  caste  is  arrayed  against  them.  Its  perpetuity  is 
linked  closely  with  the  resistance  of  all  efforts  at 
reform. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  connubial  is  the  con- 
vivial legislation  of  caste.  It  is  the  business  of  eveiy\ 
member  of  a  caste  to  conserve  the  purity  of  his  gens) 
by  eating  only  with  his  fellow-castemen.  Under  no 
circumstance  can  he  inter-dine  with  those  of  a  caste 
below  his  own.  The  dictates  of  caste  in  this  matter 
are  sometimes  beyond  understanding.  Not  only  must 
a  man  eat  with  those  of  his  own  connection ;  he  must 
be  very  scrupulous  as  to  the  source  of  the  articles 
which  he  is  about  to  eat;  he  must  know  who  handled 
them,  and  especially  who  cooked  them.  Some  arti- 
cles of  food,  such  as  fruit,  are  not  subject  to  pollution ; 
while  others,  preeminently  water,  are  to  be  very  care- 
fully guarded  against  the  polluting  touch  of  the  lower 
castes.  The  writer  has  entered  a  railway  car  and 
accidentally  touched  a  Brahman's  water-pot  under  the 
seat,  whereupon  the  disgusted  owner  seized  the  vessel 
and  immediately  poured  out  of  the  car  window  all  its 
contents.  It  has  been  truly  said  that  that  monster  of 
cruelty,  Nana  Sahib  of  Cawnpore,  was  able,  without 


io8  INDIA:    ITS  LIFE   AND  THOUGHT 

any  violation  of  caste  rules,  to  massacre  many  inno- 
cent English  women  and  children  at  the  time  of  the 
great  Mutiny ;  but  to  drink  a  cup  of  water  out  of  the 
hand  of  one  of  those  tender  victims  of  his  treachery 
and  rage  would  have  been  a  mortal  sin  against  caste, 
such  as  could  be  atoned  for  only  in  future  births  and 
by  the  fiery  tortures  of  hell !  The  rationale  of  this 
interdiction  is  doubtless  the  desire  to  preserve  the 
purity  of  caste  blood.  As  food  becomes  a  part  of  the 
body,  and,  as  the  Hindu  thinks,  of  the  life,  it  is  im- 
perative that  all  the  members  of  a  caste  shall  eat  only 
the  same  kind  of  food,  and  also  that  which  has  not 
been  subjected  to  the  ceremonially  polluting  touch  of 
outsiders. 

This  urgency  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  different 
castes  proscribe  different  articles  of  diet.  The  Sivar, 
so-called,  are  strict  vegetarians,  and  will  have  abso- 
lutely no  communion  in  food  with  meat-eaters,  even 
though  the  latter  may  belong  to  a  higher  caste  than 
themselves.  Meat  of  any  kind  is  an  abomination 
to  them.  Other  respectable  castes  will  touch  only 
chicken  meat,  others  mutton,  a  very  few  pork,  while 
no  caste  will  permit  its  members  to  eat  beef.  No  sin 
is  regarded  by  the  orthodox  with  more  horror  than 
that  of  killing  and  eating  the  flesh  of  the  cow, —  the 


THE  HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  109 

most  sacred  and  most  commonly  worshipped  animal 
of  India. 

These  convivial  rules  of  caste  are  the  greatest 
obstacles  to  social  union  and  fellowship  among  the 
people  of  India.  Westerners  hardly  realize  the  extent 
to  which  their  communion  is  based  upon  the  con- 
vivial habit.  Many  times  a  friendship  which  lasts  a 
lifetime  is  formed  by  strangers  sitting  together  at  the 
common  dinner  table.  And,  in  the  same  way,  are  the 
old  friendships  of  life  generally  renewed  and  cemented 
in  the  West.  And  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  the 
Christian  faith  antagonizes  Hinduism  at  this  very 
point  by  enacting  that  its  great  Sacrament  of  love 
and  communion  of  life  in  Christ  be  embodied  in  a 
perpetual  and  universal  "drinking  of  the  same  cup 
and  eating  of  the  same  bread-"  In  nothing  is  Hindu- 
ism becoming  more  manifestly  a  burden  to  the  edu-  / 
cated  community  than  in  this  restriction  about  inter- 
dining;  and  in  nothing  are  they  more  ready,  as  we 
shall  see  later,  to  violate  caste  customs  than  in  this 
matter. 

Then  comes,  as  a  natural  consequence  of  the  above, 
limitations  to  the  contact  of  persons  of  differing  castes. 
If  a  Brahman  cannot  eat  with  a  Sudra,  because  it  sup- 
posedly brings  a  taint  to  his  pure  blood,  no  more  can 


no  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

he,  with  impunity,  come  into  personal  contact  with 
him.  The  touch  of  such  is  pollution  to  his  august 
and  pure  person;  and  the  very  air  the  low  castes 
breathe  brings  to  his  soul  and  body  taint  and  poison. 
This  idea  of  ceremonial  pollution  by  contact  causes 
great  inconvenience  and  trouble,  and  for  that  reason 
has  been  considerably  mitigated  or  modified  in  recent 
times.  The  Rajah  of  Cochin,  who  lives  temporarily 
near  the  writer,  and  who  is  evidently  a  stickler  for 
caste  observances,  receives  calls  from  European 
friends  only  before  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning,  for 
the  obvious  reason  that  that  is  the  hour  of  his  daily 
ablution.  The  Maharajah  of  Travancore  bathes  at 
7  A.M.  daily;  hence,  intending  European  guests  find 
reception  only  before  that  early  hour.  In  the  State 
of  Travancore,  in  which  Brahmanical  influence  is 
great,  even  the  high  caste  Nair  cannot  touch,  though 
he  may  approach,  a  Namburi  Brahman.  A  member 
of  the  artisan  castes  will  pollute  his  holiness  twenty- 
four  feet  off;  cultivators  at  forty-eight  feet;  the  beef- 
eating  Pariah  at  sixty-four  feet.  Like  the  Palestinian 
leper  of  old,  the  low-caste  man  of  that  part  of  India 
was,  until  recently,  expected  to  leave  the  road  when 
he  saw  a  Brahman  come,  and  remove  his  polluting 
person  to  the  required  number  of  feet  from  his  sacred 


THE   HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  m 

presence.  Low-caste  witnesses  were  not  allowed  to 
approach  a  court  of  justice,  but  standing  without,  at 
the  requisite  distance,  to  yell  their  testimony  to  the 
Brahman  judge  who  sat  in  uncontaminated  purity 
within.  The  falling  of  the  shadow  of  a  low-caste 
person  upon  any  Brahman  in  India  necessitates  an 
ablution  on  the  part  of  the  latter.  It  is  this  frequency 
of  contaminating  and  polluting  contingencies  in  the 
life  of  the  Brahman  which  requires  of  him  so  many 
ablutions  daily,  and  which  renders  him  perhaps  the 
cleanest  in  person  among  the  sons  of  men.  So  many 
are  the  dangers  of  contamination  which  daily  beset 
him  in  the  ordinary  pursuits  of  life  that  relief  in  the 
form  of  dispensations  is  granted  him,  so  as  to  reduce 
the  ceremonies  and  diminish  the  extreme  burden  of 
religious  observance.  This  law  of  contact  and  pollu- 
tion must  weigh  heavily  upon  any  genuine  Hindu  of 
high  caste.  The  relation  of  the  Maharajah  of  Trav- 
ancore  to  his  Prime  Minister,  who  is  a  Brahman,  is 
an  interesting  illustration.  The  Rajah  is  not  a  born 
Brahman ;  he  is  by  many  of  his  people  regarded  as  a 
manufactured  Brahman.  But  His  Highness  himself 
does  not  regard  himself  as  equal,  in  sacred  manhood, 
to  his  Brahman  Prime  Minister;  hence  he  will  never 
be  seated  in  his  presence.  Nor  will  the  Brahman 


ii2  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Dewan  deign  to  sit  in  the  presence  of  his  royal  mas- 
ter, the  Maharajah.  Hence  all  the  business  of  State 
(sometimes  requiring  conferences  of  three  hours  a 
day)  is  transacted  by  them  while  standing  in  each 
other's  presence. 

Occupational  limitations  are  observed,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  by  many  modern  castes.  Trade  castes 
not  only  prescribe  the  one  ancestral  occupation  to 
their  members;  they  also,  with  equal  distinctness  and 
severity,  prohibit  to  all  within  their  ranks  any  other 
work  or  trade.  So  in  all  those  legion  castes  not 
only  has  a  man  his  social  sphere  and  status  as- 
signed to  him,  he  is  also  tied  to  the  trade  of  his 
ancestors;  yea,  more,  he  is  expected  to  confine  him- 
self to  ancestral  tools  and  methods  of  work  in  that 
narrow  rut  of  life.  One  day  the  writer  was  accosted 
by  a  weaver  who  was  in  a  famishing  condition.  He 
made  a  pathetic  plea  for  charity.  Manchester  cloths 
were  flooding  the  market;  they  therefore  could  not 
sell  the  products  of  their  labour  at  living  rates.  It 
was  suggested  that  they  take  up  some  other  trade 
that  could  furnish  them  a  decent  living.  He  lifted 
up  his  hands  in  horror  at  the  impious  suggestion,  that 
they  abandon  their  caste-prescribed  occupation!  He 
felt  that  he  and  his  were  ground  between  the  upper 


THE   HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  113 

and  nether  millstones.  To  suggest  to  him  that  they 
even  change  the  kind  or  style  of  article  which  they 
prepared  upon  their  looms  for  the  market  would  have 
been  equally  impossible.  Out  in  the  villages,  where 
these  people  live,  it  would  seem  almost  as  absurd  for 
the  weaver  to  become  a  carpenter  as  for  the  weaver 
who  uses  only  cotton  thread  to  become  a  silk-weaver, 
or  for  those  who  weave  coarse  white  cloths  to  produce 
the  finer  coloured  cloths  worn  by  the  women.  No; 
for  generations  their  people  have  given  themselves 
to  the  production  of  only  one  article.  "It  is  the 
custom  of  our  people  "  is  the  final  word.  And  what 
has  become  customary  is  by  caste  enactment  made 
obligatory.  And  woe  be  to  him  who  defies  caste. 
And  thus  the  caste-prescribed  trade  becomes  the 
be-all  and  the  end-all  of  life. 

These  four  —  the  connubial,  the  convivial,  the 
contactual,  and  the  occupational  —  are  the  constant  ^ 
factors  of  the  caste  existence  and  activity  in  India. 
But  in  addition  to  these,  caste  takes  other  functions 
and  assumes  other  forms  in  certain  localities  and 
under  certain  circumstances.  Definite  forms  of  reli- 
gious observance  are  often  enjoined,  certain  places  of 
pilgrimage  are  sanctioned,  marriage  forms  prescribed, 
marriage  obligations  defined,  divorce  made  possible 


ii4  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

or  impossible,  and  the  limit  of  marriage  expenses  set. 
There  is  hardly  a  department  of  life  or  a  duty  which 
men  owe  to  their  dead  which  does  not  enter  the 
domain  of  caste  legislation  somewhere  or  other. 

A  strange  and  very  interesting  peculiarity  of  certain 
castes  is  their  totemistic  aspect.  This  characteristic 
has  only  recently  been  discovered.  "  At  the  bottom 
of  the  social  system,  as  understood  by  the  average 
Hindu,  we  find,  in  the  Dravidian  region  of  India,  a 
large  body  of  tribes  and  castes  each  of  which  is  broken 
up  into  a  number  of  totemistic  septs.  Each  sept  bears 
the  name  of  an  animal,  a  tree,  a  plant,  or  some  mate- 
rial object,  natural  or  artificial,  which  the  members  of 
that  sept  are  prohibited  from  tilling,  eating,  cutting, 
burning,  carrying,  using,  etc."  (See  Census  of  1901, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  530-535-) 

Mr.  J.  G.  Frazer,  in  the  Fortnightly  Review,  gives 
the  following  description  of  the  totem:  "A  totem  is 
a  class  of  natural  phenomena  or  material  objects  — 
most  commonly  a  species  of  animals  or  plants  — 
between  which  and  himself  the  savage  believes  that 
a  certain  intimate  relation  exists.  .  .  .  This  relation 
leads  the  savage  to  abstain  from  killing  or  eating  his 
totem,  if  it  happen  to  be  a  species  of  animal  or  plant. 
Further,  the  group  of  persons  who  are  knit  to  any 


THE   HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  115 

particular  totem  by  this  mysterious  tie  commonly  bear 
the  name  of  the  totem,  believe  themselves  to  be  of  one 
blood,  and  strictly  refuse  to  sanction  the  marriage  or 
cohabitation  of  members  of  the  group  with  each  other. 
This  prohibition  to  marry  within  the  group  is  now 
generally  called  by  the  name  Exogamy.  Thus  totem- 
ism  has  commonly  been  treated  as  a  primitive  system, 
both  of  religion  and  of  society." 

In  absorbing  the  Dravidian  tribes,  Brahmanism 
appropriated  the  totemistic  cult  and  incorporated  it 
into  the  caste  system.  And  many  Dravidian  castes 
which  are  identified  with  this  cult  have  the  striking 
peculiarity  of  being  exogamous  as  contrasted  with  the 
endogamy  of  the  Aryan  section  of  Hindu  castes. 

Ill 

The  penalties  which  are  inflicted  by  caste  for 
violation  of  its  rules  are  many  and  very  severe.  It  is 
hardly  too  much  to  say  that  there  is  not  on  earth  an 
organization  more  absolute  in  its  power,  more  wide- 
reaching  in  its  sweep  of  interests,  and  more  crushing 
in  its  punishment,  than  is  caste.  In  the  first  place, 
it  so  completely  hems  in  the  life  of  a  man,  impera- 
tively prescribes  for  him  the  routine  of  life,  even  down 
to  the  most  insignificant  details,  and  thus  shuts  him 


n6  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

up  to  his  own  clan,  and  with  equal  completeness  cuts 
him  off  from  the  members  of  other  castes,  that  it  can 
reduce  any  recalcitrant  member  to  certain  and  speedy 
obedience,  simply  because  there  is  no  one  to  whom  he 
can  flee  for  sympathy  and  refuge.  Even  if  this  whole 
system  had  not,  as  its  first  aim  and  achievement,  the 
alienation  of  members  of  different  castes,  who  is  there 
among  Hindus  that  would  interfere  with  this  function 
of  a  caste  to  discipline  its  members?  For  is  not 
"  Thou  shalt  obey  implicitly  thy  caste,"  the  first  law 
of  the  Hindu  decalogue,  and  the  one  most  sincerely 
believed  by  all  Hindus?  The  following  are  among 
the  penalties  inflicted  upon  one  who  is  under  the  ban 
of  his  caste :  — 

All  the  members  of  his  caste  are  prohibited  from 
accepting  his  hospitality.  Not  even  his  own  house- 
hold are  permitted  to  dine  with  him.  He  is  boycotted, 
absolutely,  by  all  his  best  friends,  associates,  and  com- 
panions. Not  one  of  them  dares,  under  penalty  of 
complete  ostracism,  to  harbour  or  favour  him.  Nor 
will  he  be  invited  to  their  homes.  They  dare  not 
receive  him  under  the  shelter  of  their  roofs  nor  offer 
him  food.  More  than  once  the  writer  has  seen  the 
bitter  tyranny  of  caste  brought  to  bear  upon  those  who 
had  abandoned  caste  by  becoming  Christians.  Here 


THE   HINDU   CASTE  SYSTEM  117 

is  a  youth  known  to  the  writer.  He  is  a  member  of  a 
respectable  caste.  He  accepts  the  religion  of  Christ 
publicly  as  his  own.  His  parents  and  brothers  and 
sister  will  cling  to  him  with  the  hope  of  bringing  him 
back  to  the  ancestral  faith.  But  caste  authority  steps 
in.  It  forbids  the  family  to  receive  the  son  and 
brother,  or  to  offer  him  a  morsel  of  food.  In  that 
household  a  sad  war  of  sentiment  is  inaugurated. 
Parental  love  and  family  tenderness  cling  to  the  Chris- 
tian youth ;  and  is  he  not  the  hope  of  the  family  for 
the  years  to  come  ?  But  to  harbour  him  means  to  be 
outcast  as  a  family;  and  how  can  they  endure  that? 
And  are  they  not  at  heart  loyal  to  the  caste  of  their 
fathers?  So  the  conflict  runs  on  for  months.  One 
night  only  the  tender  heart  of  the  sister  compels  her 
to  defy  caste  to  the  extent,  not  of  eating  with  the  dear 
brother  and  companion  of  her  youth,  but  so  far  as  to 
bring  him  the  remnant  of  their  meal,  not  in  one  of  the 
home  vessels  from  which  he  had  eaten  so  often  as  a 
Hindu  in  the  past,  but  on  a  plantain  leaf  and  behind 
the  house ! 

Then,  of  course,  comes  the  connubial  ban  whereby 
all  the  members  of  the  caste  are  prohibited  from  giving 
any  of  their  children  in  marriage  to  those  of  his  house- 
hold. To  the  Hindu  who  believes  that  marriage  is 


n8  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

not  only  the  God-given  right  of  every  human  being, 
but  who  also  implicitly  believes  that  it  is  a  heavenly 
injunction  whose  fulfilment  rests  as  a  duty  upon  every 
father  in  behalf  of  his  children,  this  interdict  is  the 
most  oppressive  of  all.  But  it  is  enforced  with  heart- 
less severity  in  every  case ;  and  any  family  which  may 
defy  the  caste  in  this  respect  by  entering  into  conjugaj 
relationship  with  that  of  the  one  under  ban,  is  at  once 
outcast. 

Another  mighty  resource  of  the  organization,  in  this 
connection,  is  to  interdict  to  the  recreant  member  the 
use  of  all  caste  servants.  For  instance,  the  caste  barber 
and  washerman  are  commanded  to  serve  him  and  his 
no  longer.  The  severity  of  this  interdiction  cannot 
possibly  be  realized  by  westerners,  who  are  not  always 
dependent  upon  these  functionaries.  But  in  India 
every  one  depends  upon  the  barber  and  washerman  for 
their  service  even  more  than  a  westerner  does  upon 
the  service  of  the  butcher  or  the  doctor.  The  Hindu 
never  dreams  of  the  possibility  of  doing  for  himself 
the  duties  performed  by  these  caste  servants  for  him. 
Moreover,  the  barbers  and  washermen  of  other  castes 
would,  under  no  circumstance,  be  allowed  to  render 
him  the  service  thus  prohibited  to  him  by  his  own 
caste. 


THE   HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  119 

Add  again  to  these  inflictions  the  further  one  of 
complete  isolation  in  times  of  domestic  bereavement. 
Should  a  member  of  his  family  die,  not  one  of  the  caste 
members  is  permitted  to  help  in  the  last  sacred  rites 
for  the  dead.  Even  at  that  moment,  when  one  would 
expect  the  icy  barriers  to  melt  away,  the  heart  of  caste 
is  as  hard  and  its  severity  as  rigid  as  ever.  The  help- 
lessness of  a  family  under  these  circumstances  is,  to 
any  one  who  is  not  a  slave  to  the  whole  accursed  sys- 
tem, most  pitiful  and  heartrending. 

Another  caste  penalty  which  has  received  undue 
public  prominence  of  late  is  called  prayaschitta,  which 
means  atonement.  It  is  usually  applied  as  punishment 
to  those  who  have  had  the  temerity  to  cross  the  ocean 
for  foreign  travel,  business,  or  study.  More  correctly, 
it  is  rather  a  process  of  cleansing  and  ceremonial  re- 
habilitation than  an  act  of  punishment.  The  exclu- 
siveness  of  caste  delighted  in  calling  all  foreigners 
Mlechhas,  which,  though  perhaps  not  as  vigorous  a 
term  as  the  Chinese  sobriquet,  "black  devils,"  con- 
noted, and  still  connotes,  to  the  caste  Hindu,  "  unclean 
wretches,"  contact  with  whom  brings  ceremonial  pollu- 
tion and  sin.  He  who  crossed  the  ocean  would  nec- 
essarily be  debased  by  these  defiling  ones  and  would 
be,  as  a  matter  of  course,  engulfed  in  the  pollutions 


120  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

of  their  life !  To  prohibit  travel,  which  necessarily 
involved  such  sin  and  degradation,  became  there- 
fore the  concern  of  the  ancient  lawmakers  of  India. 
Hence  the  prayaschitta,  under  which  the  educated 
community  of  India  chafe  so  much  at  the  present 
time.  For  many  of  the  best  and  most  promising 
youth  of  India  travel  abroad  or  reside  temporarily  in 
England,  with  a  view  to  perfecting  their  educational 
training  so  as  to  qualify  themselves  for  highest  posi- 
tions of  usefulness  in  the  homeland.  Others  go 
abroad  on  business  or  to  behold  and  study  the  wonders 
of  western  life  and  civilization.  All  men  of  culture 
and  power  in  India,  at  the  present  time,  are  convinced 
of  the  evil  and  absurdity  of  this  caste  law,  which  is 
common  to  all  castes,  because  it  is  a  part  of  the  gen- 
eral legislation  of  their  religion.  They  decline  to  be- 
lieve that  it  is  either  sin  or  pollution  to  go  in  search 
of  the  best  that  the  West  and  the  East  have  discov- 
ered and  can  bestow  upon  one,  and  that  which  is  to-day 
doing  most  in  the  elevation  and  redemption  of  India 
herself.  And  many  of  them  are  defying  this  obsolete 
and  debasing  law  of  their  faith.  Many  others  are  cry- 
ing for  a  modern  interpretation  of  the  law  —  an  inter- 
pretation which  will  explain  away  its  bitterness  and 
render  it  innocuous.  For  it  is  not  simply  or  chiefly 


THE   HINDU   CASTE  SYSTEM  121 

the  reactionary  and  absurd  character  of  this  legislation 
which  exasperates  the  intelligence  of  the  land ;  it  is 
the  very  offensive  and  revolting  nature  of  the  expia- 
tion which  preeminently  stirs  up  the  rebellion.  In 
former  centuries  of  darkness,  Hindus  may  have  been 
willing  to  submit  to  the  humiliation  of  eating  the  five 

products  of  the  cow  as  an  atonement  for  the  supposed 

i 
sin  of  sea-travel.     The  culture  and  intelligence  of  the 

present  time  is  neither  so  abject  nor  so  superstitious 
as  to  submit  to  this,  without,  at  least,  a  vigorous  pro- 
test. And  yet,  what  the  culture  of  India  seeks  to-day 
is  not  the  abolishing  of  this  law,  which  is  equally  re- 
pulsive to  their  taste  and  to  their  intelligence ;  it  asks 
only  that  some  way  of  avoiding  the  penalty  may  be 
found !  And  all  that  Hinduism  and  caste  require 
of  these  foreign-travelled  men  is  not  an  intelligent 
submission  to  its  behests,  but  an  outward  observance 
of  them.  So  the  faith  and  its  conservative  defenders 
are  satisfied  to  see  these  men  of  culture,  as  they  return 
with  the  acquired  treasures  of  the  West,  submit  out- 
wardly to  this  offensive  rite,  while  their  sensitive 
nature  rises  in  rebellion  against  it.  And  these  young 
scions  of  the  East  willingly  practise  this  hypocrisy  and 
submit  to  this  indignity  in  order  to  live  at  peace  with, 
and  indeed  to  live  at  all  in,  their  ancestral  caste !  It 


122  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

is  only  an  illustration  of  the  hollowness  of  the  major 
part  of  the  life  of  the  educated  community  in  this  great 
land.  Well  may  one  exclaim,  what  can  be  expected 
from  a  people  whose  leading  men  of  culture  are  living 
this  double  and  mean  life !  This  is  verily  "  peace  with 
dishonour"! 


CHAPTER   V 

THE    HINDU    CASTE    SYSTEM    (continued) 

IV 

THE  agency  through  which,  and  the  occasion  upon 
which,  caste  penalizes  its  members  are  manifold. 

Formerly,  Hindu  kings,  under  instruction  from 
their  pandit  ministers,  would  enforce  caste  observ- 
ances. But  under  the  present  non-Hindu  State  no 
such  action  could  be  expected.  In  many  instances 
pandits  have  to  be  consulted  both  as  to  whether  a 
member  has  really  violated  shastraic  injunctions  and 
as  to  the  penalty  which  should  be  inflicted  in  that 
special  case.  In  doubtful  cases,  pandits  of  various 
trainings  and  leanings  are  called  who  present  con- 
flicting opinions  which  end  in  confusion. 

In  Southern  India  important  cases  of  caste  viola- 
tion among  non-Vishnuvite  Hindus  are  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Superiors  of  Sankarite  monasteries. 
Some  of  these  assume  and  exercise  Papal  authority 
in  such  matters  among  their  people.  Usually,  how- 
ever, each  local  caste  organization  deals  directly  with 

123 


i24  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

infractions  of  its  own  rules,  and  is  competent  to  deal 
drastically,  and  as  a  court  of  final  resort,  with  all  cases 
of  caste  infringement  within  its  own  membership. 
It  may  be  done  in  public  assembly,  when  all  male 
members  are  present  and  have  a  voice ;  or  the  caste 
panchayat,  or  council  of  five,  may  sit  in  judgment 
upon  the  case  and  have  right  of  final  action.  This 
latter  tribunal  is  the  more  common  in  South  India, 
and  is  more  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  and  methods 
of  the  land. 

There  are  a  number  of  courses  of  action  which  are 
adequate  as  causes  of  removal  from  caste. 

One  of  these  is  a  change  of  faith.  The  abandon- 
ment of  the  ancestral  religion,  which  is  the  mother 
of  caste  spirit  and  organization,  especially  when  the 
newly  accepted  faith  repudiates  openly  caste  and  all 
that  belongs  to  it,  inevitably  leads  to  expulsion  from 
caste.  In  most  cases  this  has  resulted  upon  conver- 
sion to  either  Christianity  or  Mohammedanism.  But 
this  is  not  as  universal  as  we  could  wish  or  as  many 
suppose,  as  we  shall  see  later  on.  It  may  be  seen 
how,  in  a  mass  movement  of  a  large  body  of  men 
toward  Christianity,  for  instance,  the  people  may 
easily,  and  would  naturally,  carry  with  them  into  the 
new  faith  many  of  their  old  customs  and  habits,  in- 


THE   HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  125 

eluding  much  that  pertains  to,  and  is  of  the  essence 
of,  caste. 

Roman  Catholicism  has  interpreted  caste  chiefly 
from  a  social  standpoint,  and  has  therefore  regarded  it 
as  a  social  institution  which  can  be  adapted  to,  and 
adopted  into,  the  Christian  religion.  Protestantism, 
or,  at  least,  Anglo-Saxon  Protestantism,  has  regarded 
caste  as  primarily  and  dominantly  a  religious  institu- 
tion, whose  spirit  antagonizes  fundamentally  our  faith, 
and  which  must  be  opposed  at  all  points.  Hence  it 
is  a  part  of  the  pledge  of  every  one  who  enters  into 
the  Protestant  fellowship  in  India  that  he  will  eschew 
and  oppose  caste  at  all  times.  And  it  may  be  said 
that,  though  Hinduism  loves  dearly  compromise  and 
evasion,  it  has  in  the  main  held  that  a  man  who  has  l 
accepted  the  Christian  faith  and  has  been  publicly 
baptized  into  its  conviction  of  the  "fatherhood  of 
God  and  the  brotherhood  of  all  men,"  has  no  place  in 
its  own  caste  system,  and  it  consistently  deals  with  him 
as  with  an  outcast.  As  we  have  already  seen,  every 
man  who  has  travelled  abroad  has  lost  thereby  caste  • 
and  has  to  undergo  expiation  before  reinstatement.-' 
It  matters  not  how  thoroughly  he  has  tried  to  preserve 
caste  customs  during  his  travels  and  in  the  foreign 
land,  he  is  regarded  by  all  as  a  de  facto  outcast. 


126  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Marrying  a  widow  is  also  an  act  which  severs  caste 
ties  and  places  a  man  under  the  ban.  Of  course, 
this  applies  not  to  the"Tew  castes  which  allow  widow- 
remarriage.  But  as  the  bulk  of  Hindus  deny  the 
righf  of  a  widow  to  remarry  (though  there  is  no  caste 
obstacle  to  a  widower  taking  unto  himself  a  new  vir- 
gin wife  every  year  of  his  life),  a  man  cannot  enter 
into  an  alliance  with  a  widow  without  losing  caste 

thereby. 
/ 

Beef-eating  is  regarded  as  so  heinous  a  sin  that  no 

member  of  a  respectable  caste  would  expect  considera- 
tion for  a  moment.  And  yet  Dr.  J.  H.  Barrows  has 
said  that  the  famous  Swamy,  Vivekanantha,  when 
with  him  at  Chicago,  ate  a  whole  plateful  of  beef  in 
his  presence  and  with  a  great  deal  of  relish.  But  he, 
of  course,  had  graduated  out  of  the  ordinary  level  of 
Hindu-hood  into  the  sacred  heights  of  Swamyhood, 
in  which  a  man  is  exempt  from  the  mean  limitation 
of  caste,  and  when  the  vulgar  sins  of  common  Hindu 
life  are  transmuted  into  the  ordinary  blessings  and 
privileges  of  saintdom. 

In    like    manner,    vegetarian    castes    punish    their 

J  members  for   the   eating  of   any  meat.     The   Hindu 

aversion  to  meat  is  very  common ;  it  is  also  sanitary 

and   wholesome;  for    meat-eating   in   the    tropics    is 


THE   HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  127 

neither  necessary  nor  conducive  to  health.  And  yet  *•• 
the  Pariah  outcast  has  no  scruples  in  this  matter.  It 
is  indeed  true  that  he  would  deem  it  a  sin  to  butcher 
a  cow  or  an  ox ;  but  he  will  not  hesitate  to  poison  his 
neighbour's  cattle,  that  he  may  thereby  have  enough 
carrion  to  eat.  For  the  carcases  of  the  dead  cattle  of 
the  village  are  the  perquisite  of  the  Pariah ;  and  it  is 
upon  finding  such  that  he  enjoys  his  only  feasts  of 
plenty.  But  to  the  ordinary  Hindu  all  bovine  kind  ,/" 
are  divine,  and  the  flesh  of  the  same  is  strictly  and 
vehemently  tabooed. 

Punishment  is  also  dealt  out,  as  we  have  seen,  to , 
those  who  eat  any  food  cooked  by  an  outcast,  ^ 
whether  he  be  Christian,  Mohammedan,  or  Pariah. 
And  the  same  is  true  of  eating  with  an  outcast, 
or  with  one  who  is  of  a  lower  caste  than  himself. 
Indeed,  so  far  is  this  spirit  carried  by  certain  high 
castes  that  to  be  seen  eating  by  a  member  of  a  lower 
caste,  or  to  allow  the  shadow  of  a  stranger  to  fall 
upon  one's  prepared  food,  is  pollution.  Hence  the 
care  with  which  all  Hindus  seek  privacy  and  avoid 
the  gaze  of  men  during  mealtime. 

Officiating  as  a  priest  in  the  house  of  a  low-class 
Sudra  is  strictly  prohibited  to  a  Brahman,  and  he 
loses  caste  thereby.  He  and  other  "twice  born" 


128  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

are  also  driven  out  of  caste  if  they  throw  away  the 
sacred  thread  which  is  the  outer  badge  of  their 
second  birth  and  dignity. 

A  woman,  when  found  in  open  sin  with  a  man 
of  another  caste,  and  a  widow,  when  she  can  no 
longer  hide  the  consequence  of  her  immorality,  are 
no  longer  in  caste. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  mention  that  marrying 
outside  of  one's  own  caste  is  a  sin  which  finds  no 
countenance,  but  severest  punishment,  in  nearly  all 
castes. 

Generally  speaking,  we  may  say  that  caste  author- 
ity is  exercised  only  in  cases  where  ceremonial  ob- 
servance and  social  usages  are  violated.  In  matters 
that  are  purely  ethical,  and  which  bear  upon  the 
character  and  moral  elevation  of  the  individual  and 
the  clan,  caste  rarely  acts;  for  it  does  not  consider 
that  its  honour  is  compromised  or  its  organic  life 
impaired  by  such  conduct. 

^  It  should  also  be  mentioned  that  caste  is  not 
even  in  the  distribution  of  its  dispensations  and 
'punishments.  A  man  of  wealth  and  social  influ- 
ence succeeds  in  staving  off  many  acts  of  caste 
displeasure  which  would  fall  heavily  upon  the  poor 
and  friendless  man.  Such  a  man  may,  and  often 


THE  HINDU  CASTE   SYSTEM  129 

does,  trample  under  foot  every  command  of  the 
decalogue,  and  at  the  same  time  defy  and  violate 
a  good  moiety  of  the  injunctions  of  his  caste. 
And  yet,  because  of  his  wealth  and  general  impor- 
tance in  caste  councils,  he  stands  unimpeached 
and  unrebuked. 

In  matters  of  caste  observance  and  discipline, 
villages  are  much  more  conservative  and  strict 
than  cities.  In  the  latter,  as  we  shall  see,  caste 
observance  is  much  relaxed,  and  life  is  more  on' 

modern  lines. 

V 

The  results  of  the  caste  system  in  India  are 
many  and  manifest.  It  has  sown  its  seed  for  many 
centuries  and  to-day  reaps  a  rich  harvest  in  life 
and  conduct.  It  should  not  be  assumed,  and  it 
cannot  be  asserted,  that  this  great  system  has 
always  been  an  unmixed  evil  to  the  people  of 
this  land. 

No  organization  which  has  bound  by  its  fetters 
for  eighty  generations  nearly  a  sixth  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  globe,  and  which  continues  to  grip 
them  to-day  with  tyrannical  power,  can  be  devoid 
of  any  redeeming  feature.  The  very  perpetuity 
and  prosperity  of  the  scheme  argues  for  its  posses- 


130  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

sion  of  some  rational  features,  originally  connected 
with  it,  which  gave  it  sanction  to  the  myriads  who 
have  submitted  to  its  reign  over  them.  But  it  is 
exceedingly  difficult  to  discover  that  excellence 
which  originally  commended  it  to  the  people  of 
this  land.  Nor  do  the  writings  of  those  who  have 
striven  to  defend  the  system  assist  us  in  making 
this  discovery.  A  modern  Brahman  defence  by 
Jogendra  Nath  Bhattacharya  (see  "  Hindu  Castes 
and  Sects,"  pp.  i-io)  gives  only  one  ray  of  light 
upon  the  subject  when  he  observes  that  "the  legis- 
lation of  the  Rishis  was  calculated  not  only  to 
bring  about  union  between  the  isolated  clans 
that  lived  in  primitive  India,  but  to  render  it  pos- 
sible to  assimilate  within  each  group  the  foreign 
hordes  that  were  expected  to  pour  into  the  country 
from  time  to  time."  In  those  remote  days  when 
weakness  through  isolation  threatened  their  very 
existence,  and  when  there  was  no  possibility  of  a 
general  union  of  all  the  people  for  defence,  thorough 
organization  of  clans  into  castes  brought  strength 
and  confidence  and  was  a  conspicuous  blessing. 
It  was  in  those  days  a  convenient  and  effective 
way  of  enforcing  religious  obligations  upon  the 
heterogeneous  clans.  It  also  was  then  probably 


THE   HINDU  CASTE   SYSTEM  131 

useful  in  preserving  purity  of  blood  among  the 
higher  races,  and  in  conserving  the  nobility  of  the 
Aryan  who  was  destined  to  rule  the  mixed  races 
of  India  for  many  centuries. 

Nor  is  the  system  without  possibilities  of  good 
in  modern  times,  as  was  illustrated  recently  by 
the  action  of  a  prominent  North  India  caste  in 
prohibiting  large  expenses  in  marriage  and  in  rais- 
ing, by  legislation,  the  limit  of  the  marriageable 
age  of  its  girls. 

But,  alas,  any  good  that  may  possibly  inhere  in 
the  system  has  largely  remained  in  posse  rather 
than  in  esse.  The  history  of  caste  has  been  one 
of  evil,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  such  a  fair-minded 
writer  as  Mr.  Sherring,  who  has  probably  made  a 
more  thorough  study  of  the  subject  than  any  other 
man,  should  call  the  organization  "a  monstrous 
engine  of  pride,  dissension,  and  shame "  (see  Pref- 
ace to  his  "  Hindu  Tribes  and  Castes ").  Consider- 
ing the  subject,  therefore,  in  its  bearing  upon  the 
life  of  India  to-day,  and  studying  its  results  as  we 
now  find  them  among  all  classes  of  the  people 
and  in  their  definite  bearing  upon  the  future  of 
the  land,  we  are  compelled  to  pronounce  against 
it  at  all  points. 


132  INDIA:    ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

It  is,  in  the  first  place,  the  source  of  intermi- 
nable discord  and  dissension  all  over  the  land.  It 
not  only  arrays  caste  against  caste ;  but  bitter 
animosity  is  the  order  of  the  day  among  the  sub- 
divisions of  castes.  In  every  one  of  the  numberless 
castes  in  the  land  there  are  divisions  and  subdi- 
visions galore.  And  while  the  Sudras  acknowledge 
the  supremacy  of  the  "twice  born,"  among  the 
myriad  clans  of  the  Sudras  themselves  there  is 
endless  assumption  and  contention,  every  one, 
fomented  by  pride,  claiming  primacy  and  distinction 
above  the  others.  Recently,  in  South  India,  this 
feeling  led  to  a  serious  riot,  in  which  not  a  few 
lives  were  lost  and  villages  devastated. 

It  also  narrows  the  sympathies  of  the  people  in 
a  most  lamentable  way.  Among  the  common  people 
of  India  it  is  held  that  a  man's  duties  to  his  caste 
embrace  his  whole  obligation.  When  a  fellow-being 
is  in  difficulty  and  his  condition  strongly  appeals 
for  sympathy,  the  first,  and  often  the  last,  question 
asked  is,  "  Is  he  a  member  of  my  caste  ? "  If 
not,  like  the  priest  and  the  Levite  of  old,  his  con- 
science allows  him  to  "pass  by  on  the  other  side." 
Recently  a  woman  perished  in  the  streets  of  a  town 
near  Madura.  She  was  a  resident  of  a  village  some 


THE  HINDU  CASTE   SYSTEM  133 

twenty-five  miles  away,  and  was,  therefore,  a  stranger 
in  this  town,  where  she  sickened  and  was  carried 
to  a  public  rest-house.  But  when  her  condition 
became  serious  and  no  relatives  or  caste  friends 
came  to  her  support,  she  was  put  out  into  the  street, 
where  she  lay  helpless  for  three  days  in  the  rain 
and  sunshine.  Hundreds  of  people  saw  her  dying 
agonies  as  they  passed  by  during  those  days ;  but 
no  heart  of  sympathy  went  out  to  her;  for  was  she 
not  a  stranger?  And  it  was  left  to  an  American, 
who  happened  to  pass  that  way  on  the  third  day, 
to  demand  of  the  town  officer  that  she  be  put  back 
in  the  rest-house,  where  she  shortly  afterward  died. 
Let  it  not  be  thought  that  this  is  an  isolated  case. 
He  who  is  familiar  with  Indian  life  knows  it  is 
not,  for  daily  he  has  to  witness  the  woful  limitations 
which  caste  imposes  upon  human  sympathy. 

Caste  has  also  degraded  manual  labour.  The  loss 
of  caste  by  any  Brahman  who  follows  the  plough  is 
only  an  application  of  this  rule  in  the  highest  quar- 
ters. /  Caste  has  taught  the  people  of  this  land  that 
humtue  toil,  however  honest  it  may  be,  is  more  than 
mean ;  it  is  sinful.  There  are  millions  of  the  higher 
castes  of  India  who  deem  it  honourable  to  beg,  and 
dignified  to  spend  their  years  in  abject  laziness,  but 


i34  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

who  would  regard  it  as  unspeakable  degradation  to 
take  a  hoe  or  a  hammer  and  earn  an  honest  living 
by  the  sweat  of  their  browj  Nor  will  their  caste  rules 
permit  of  their  undertaking  such  work.  And  this 
spirit  has  passed  down  the  ranks  until  itx  pervades  the 
whole  of  society  in  India,) with  the  consequence  that 
manual  labour  is  universally  regarded  as  degrading, 
and  with  the  further  natural  result  that  a  horde  of 
five  and  a  half  millions  of  lazy,  wretched,  immoral, 
able-bodied,  religious  beggars  are  burdening  this  land. 
And  thus  mendicancy  is  made  honourable  at  the  ex- 
pense of  honest  toil.  It  should  be  further  remarked 
that  there  are  a  number  of  begging  castes,  in  which 
all  work  is  proscribed  and  mendicity  exalted  into  a 
divinely  ordained  profession !; 

/•  (Moreover,  .caste  makes  it  impossible  for  India  to 
become  a  commercial  country.)  So  long  as  foreign 
travel  is  banned  and  contact  with  other  lands  is  re- 
garded as  a  sin  against  heaven  and  caste,  there  is 
little  hope  that  the  people  of  this  land  will  distinguish 
themselves  in  that  kind  of  trade  and  commerce  which 
has  made  India's  mistress,  Great  Britain,  so  illustrious 
in  wealth  and  dominion. 

And  it  is  this  caste  spirit  which  so  easily  made  the 
great  peninsula  of   India  a  prey  to  the   "tight  little 


THE  HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  135 

island  "  many  thousands  of  miles  away.  For  not  only 
has  caste  made  the  Hindus  an  insular  people,  it  has 
also  so  divided  them  that  they  do  not  realize  any 
common  sentimen;L_save  that  of  opposition  to  the 
State,  or  seek  any  common  good.  "(Hence  they  have 
for  many  centuries  been  the  easy  prey  of  any  adven- 
turers who  sought  to  overcome  and  despoil  them!/'  A 
genuine  national  feeling  and  a  patriotic  sentiment  are 
all  but  impossible  in  the  land.  And  all  intelligent 
Hindus  acknowledge  this  sad  condition  at  present, 
and  many  of  the  best  of  them  publicly  maintain  that 
national  consciousness,  self-rule,  and  a  glowing,  trium- 
phant patriotism  can  be  built  only  upon  the  ruins  of 
the  caste  system. 

And  even  as  it  is  a  foe  to  nationality,  so  is  it  the 
mortal  enemy  of  individualism.  The  caste  system  is 
really  a  glorification  of  the  multitude  as  against  the 
individual.  Individual  initiative  and  assertion,  liberty 
of  conscience,  the  right  of  man  to  life  and  the  pursuit 
of  happiness,  —  all  these  are  foibles  of  the  West  which 
it  has  been  the  chief  business  of  caste  to  crush ;  and 
upon  their  ruin  it  has  erected  this  mighty  tower  of 
Babel.  In  India,  it  has  been  the  business  of  men, 
from  time  immemorial,  not  to  do  what  they  think  to 
be  right,  nor  to  find  out,  every  one  for  himself,  what 


136  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND  THOUGHT 

they  consider  to  be  the  best  and  to  act  according  to 
the  dictates  of  conscience ;  it  has  rather  been  submis- 
sion to  caste  dominance.  And  it  is  the  unblushing 
teaching  of  the  Shastras  that  obedience  to  caste  is  the 
fulfilment  of  duty  and  the  summum  bonum  of  life.  So 
omnipotent  and  omniscient  is  the  arm  and  head  of 
caste  that  men  dare  not  defy  it.  Hence  we  are  com- 
pelled to  look  in  India  to-day  upon  the  saddest  spec- 
tacle of  abject  manhood  the  world  has  known.  To 
those  who,  like  the  writer,  have  spent  a  lifetime  in 
trying  to  raise  the  outcasts  and  the  lower  strata  of 
Indian  society,  the  most  difficult  and  discouraging 
obstacle  is  the  inertia  and  the  abjectness  of  the  people 
themselves.  Through  a  bitter  experience  of  many 
centuries  they  have  learned  that  it  does  not  pay  for 
the  individual  to  assert  himself  against  the  dictates 
of  the  caste,  or  for  the  lower  castes  to  rise  in  re- 
bellion against  their  lot.  They  discovered  that  they 
were  merely  butting  their  heads  against  an  adaman- 
tine rock.  So  they  have  lost  every  ambition  and 
hope ;  and  he  who  would  lift  them  up  must  first  re- 
move that  leaden  despair  which  rests  upon  them  like 
a  mighty  incubus. 

Nor  is  it  much  better  with  the  educated  classes  of 
India.     There   are   hundreds  of  thousands   of  these 


THE   HINDU  CASTE   SYSTEM  137 

men  of  western  university  training  who  annually 
assemble  in  Congress  and  in  Convention,  and  who 
in  spotless  English  of  Addisonian  accent  and  in  the 
sonorous  phraseology  of  a  Macaulay,  discourse  upon 
human  rights  and  who  denounce  the  bondage  of 
caste  tyranny.  And  yet  they  submit,  in  their  own 
homes,  to  that  same  accursed  tyranny  and  are  in  life 
as  abject  as  the  meanest  Pariah  in  the  face  of  caste 
edicts  which  they  know  to  be  unrighteous  and  de- 
meaning to  the  core. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  caste  is  the 
foster-mother  of  all  the  manifold  social  evils  of  the  ' 
land.  In  pre-caste  days  in  India  such  evils  as  child 
marriage,  prohibition  of  widow  remarriage,  temple 
women,  excessive  marriage  expenses,  etc.,  did  not 
exist.  They  are  a  part  of  the  caste  regime  supported 
and  perpetuated  by  its  authority.  Remove  this  mighty 
compulsion,  and  these  institutions  would  soon  become 
things  of  the  past. 

Another  evil  of  this  organization  is  that  of  ignoring 
the  ethical  and  spiritual  standard  and  of  measuring 
everything  from  a  purely  formal  and  ceremonial  stand- 
point. All  life  is  reduced  into  an  unceasing  ritual 
under  the  perpetual  priestly  surveillance  of  caste. 
All  that  it  asks  of  man  is  outward  conformity.  He 


138  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

may  disbelieve  and  hate  every  commandment  of  his 
faith ;  but  if  he  conforms,  he  is  a  faithful  son.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  may  be  a  man  of  unblemished 
character,  and  he  may  even  intend  to  be  obedient  to 
caste;  but  if,  some  night,  a  few  enemies  were  to 
thrust  into  his  mouth  and  compel  him  to  swallow  a 
piece  of  beef,  no  power  could  save  him  from  the 
dreadful  punishment  that  would  follow.  A  man  may 
write  a  tract  in  condemnation  and  ridicule  of  all  the 
gods -of  the  Hindu  pantheon  and  still  remain  an  ac- 
ceptable Hindu;  but  if,  in  the  agony  of  a  burning 
fever,  he  should  drink  a  spoonful  of  water  from  the 
hands  of  a  Christian  or  of  a  Pariah,  his  caste  would 
doom  him  to  perdition  for  it. 

In  other  words,  the  whole  system  directly  cultivates, 
in  all  the  people,  a  hollowness  of  life  which  does  more 
than  anything  else  to  rob  India  of  her  manhood  and 
which  makes  nobility  of  character  and  ethical  integrity 
most  difficult  things  among  the  Hindu  community. 
A  Brahman  gentleman  described  the  whole  system  as 
a  "  vast  hollow  sham."  And  such  it  is. 

VI 

Paradoxical  though  it  may  seem,  caste  spirit  is 
more  prevalent  and  its  influence  more  dominant  in 
India  at  the  present  than  in  the  past;  yet  there  is 


THE   HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  139 

more  defiance  and  violation  of  caste  rules  and  more 
frequent  and  sure  evidences  of  the  speedy  termina- 
tion of  its  reign  than  at  any  previous  time. 

It  has  ruled  so  long  and  so  supremely  in  this  coun- 
try that  the  Hindu  accepts  it  without  questioning; 
and  it  has  become  more  than  a  second  nature  to  him, 
even  a  necessity  of  his  being.  What  would  be  intol- 
erably irksome  to  a  Westerner  is  to  the  Hindu  a  mat- 
ter of  course.  To  the  rank  and  file  of  the  Hindus, 
caste  has  ceased  to  be  a  matter  of  question.  It  is  the 
only  order  of  life  with  which  he  is  conversant ;  and 
while  he  may  be  convinced  by  arguments  which  prove 
its  cruelty  and  its  many  evils,  he  still  clings  to  'it  as 
the  only  system  under  which  he  knows  how  to  live 
and  which  he  cares  to  obey. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  ramifications  of  caste 
are  more  numerous  and  its  authority  more  general 
to-day  than  at  any  former  time.  Many  Hindu  reform-  . 
ers,  especially  of  the  Vishnu  sects,  have  followed  in 
the  steps  of  the  great  Buddha,  by  denouncing  caste, 
root  and  branch,  and  have  established  their  own  sects 
during  the  last  ten  centuries  on  a  non-caste  basis. 
But  they  have  all  succumbed  to  the  demon  which 
they  antagonized  and  now  generally  observe  caste 
rules  with  the  same  devotion  as  other  Hindus. 


i4o  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

The  lower  the  caste  spirit  has  descended  to  the 
"submerged  tenth"  of  the  land,  the  more  vehemently 
have  they  become  inoculated  with  its  virus.  The  out- 
cast Pariah  is  not  to  be  outdone  in  this  matter;  and 
so  we  have  Pariahs  and  Pariahs.  Many  divisions  are 
found  among  this  wretched  class,  and  they  are  more 
exclusive  in  their  divisions  and  more  rigid  in  their 
narrowness  than  are  many  of  the  high  castes. 

Even  those  who  have  abandoned  the  Hindu  faith 
and  professed  another,  do  not  leave  behind  them  this 
divisive  spirit.  Perhaps  the  converts  from  Moham- 
medanism have  eschewed  Hindu  caste  more  than 
converts  to  other  faiths. 

Among  Christian  converts,  though  caste  is  profess- 
edly abandoned,  it  clings  with  vital  tenacity  and  al- 
most unconquerable  persistence  to  their  sense  of  the 
fitness  of  things.  Their  deepest  prejudices  and  un- 
conscious tendencies,  even  against  their  intellectual 
convictions  and  sincere  professions,  unceasingly  sway 
the  vast  majority  of  them  and  lead  them  into  affilia- 
tions and  narrow  sympathies  which  are  Hindu  and 
not  Christian.  It  is  true  that  the  oldest  Christian 
community  in  India,  the  Syrian  Church  of  Malabar, 
has  long  abandoned  the  Hindu  caste  organization, 
with  even  its  mean  remnant  of  caste  titles.  And  yet 


THE   HINDU   CASTE  SYSTEM  143 

that  community  settled  down  for  many  centuries  into 
the  conviction  that  it  was  merely  one  caste  among  the 
many  of  that  region  and  must  keep  itself  aloof  from 
and  untainted  by  the  surrounding  castes.  Roman 
Catholicism,  which  has  still  the  most  numerous  Na- 
tive Christian  community  in  India,  has  largely  adopted 
the  Hindu  system  and  tries  to  utilize  it  in  the  further- 
ance of  Christianity  in  the  land !  No  greater  mistake 
was  ever  made  than  this  of  trying  to  uphold  and  pro- 
mulgate the  meekness,  the  humility,  the  love,  and  the 
fellowship  of  Christ  by  means  of  the  haughty  pride, 
the  cruel  hate,  and  the  bitter  divisiveness  of  caste. 

Protestant  Christianity  is  to-day  the  pronounced  A 
foe  of  caste.  It  is  war  to  the  death  between  them, 
and  the  missionaries  have  not  yet  found  a  foe  to  their 
cause  so  subtle,  deceptive,  deep-rooted,  persistent,  and 
pervasive  as  this.  It  is  fortified  by  a  thousand  ram- 
parts and  presents  more  discouragement  to  the  Chris- 
tian worker  than  all  other  obstacles  combined.  Even 
Buddhism  and  Jainism,  the  former  of  which  was  the 
ancient  protest  against  Hindu  caste,  have  fallen  oft-  l 
times  a  prey  to  the  subtle  and  damning  wiles  of  this 
system.  In  Bengal,  a  number  of  Hindu  castes  are 
known  to  have  been  formerly  members  of  the  Jain  and 
Buddhist  communities  (see  Census  1901,  Vol.  II,  p.  523). 


144  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

However,  notwithstanding  this  growing  prevalence 
and  the  marvellous  tenacity  of  caste  throughout  the 
land,  there  are  encouraging  signs  of  its  decadence. 
Its  grip  is  certainly  relaxing  in  many  ways,  and  its 
asperities  are  softening. 

It  may  not  untruthfully  be  said  that  the  growing 
multiplicity  of  castes  is  one  of  the  sure  harbingers  of 
the  downfall  of  the  system.  For  the  divisions  of  caste 
are  already  beyond  computation.  The  population  is 
cut  up  into  so  many  minute  sections  that  the  caste 
edifice  overtowers  everything  else,  so  that  it  is  in 
imminent  danger  of  toppling  over.  It  is  claimed  that 
war  among  civilized  nations  will  soon  become  an  im- 
possibility because  of  the  growing  devastating  power 
of  modern  weapons  of  warfare.  In  like  manner,  caste 
is  speedily  passing  through  its  very  excesses  to  a  re- 
due  tio  ad  absurdum;  its  spirit  is  so  rampant,  and  its 
gross  evils  are  becoming  so  intolerable,  that  even  the 
patient  inhabitants  of  India  will  soon  cease  to  endure 
the  ruin  which  this  monster  of  their  own  creation 
carries  on  among  them. 

Educated  Hindus  are  already  denouncing  it  with 
great  vehemence  and  with  considerable  unanimity. 
They  are  convinced  that  India  can  never  win  inde- 
pendence and  power  under  the  regime  of  caste; 


THE   HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  145 

and  they  proclaim  their  convictions  upon  the  house- 
top. It  is  true,  as  we  have  seen,  that  caste  has  so 
powerfully  thrown  its  spell  over  them,  its  own  chil- 
dren, that  they  are  too  abject  to  withstand  it  openly 
and  unitedly.  But  I  believe  that  they  will  ere- 
long be  driven  to  action.  Further,  obedience  and 
submission  will  mean  ruin  to  them,  their  families, 
and  their  country. 

Even  now,  among  the  educated,  especially  in 
Bengal,  caste  restrictions  upon  dining  are  being  in- 
creasingly ignored.  A  Bengalee  gentleman  enjoys 
ordinary  hotel  fare  with  apparently  none  to  inter- 
fere with  his  liberties.  In  Madras,  the  writer  has 
more  than  once  rubbed  shoulders  with  Brahman 
lawyers  and  others  eating  together  the  common 
fare  of  a  well-known  restaurant  of  the  city.  And 
he  has  known  Brahman  patients,  high  in  society, 
who  did  not  object  even  to  buy  and  use  nourishment 
in  the  form  of  "  Liebig's  Beef-extract,"  so  long  as  they 
could  cover  its  offensiveness  to  the  women  of  their 
household  by  the  euphemistic  name  "meat-extract." 

And  to  this  they  are  being  rapidly  carried  by  a 
conjunction  of  many  forces  which  are  increasingly 
dominating  the  land. 

In  the   first  place,  they  have  the   potent  example 


i46  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

of  a  host  of  western  lives  among  them.  This  body 
of  white  people,  from  the  far-off  lands,  is  distributed 
all  over  India.  They  are  the  rulers  of  the  land. 
A  Brahman  may  deem  their  touch  pollution.  But 
that  same  Brahman  is  often  glad  to  undergo  that 
ceremonial  taint  if  thereby  he  can  only  enjoy  the 
white  man's  cultured  society.  He  beholds  in  these 
people  from  the  West  a  freedom  from  irksome 
caste  restraints.  He  notices  conjugal  relations  among 
them,  such  as  furnish  richest  home  blessings.  Their 
social  relations  are  untrammelled  and  abound  in 
convivial  privileges  such  as  are  denied  to  Hindu 
society.  All  this  creates  in  him  an  uneasiness. 
If  he  is  a  man  of  culture  and  resides  in  some  city 
of  importance,  he  will  wish  to  meet  English  friends 
upon  lines  of  social  equality;  but  this  he  will  find 
to  be  impossible  apart  from  his  defiance  of  caste 
rules;  for,  to  the  man  of  the  West,  the  common 
cup  and  the  festal  board  are  the  essential  condi- 
tions of  true  friendship  and  intimacy.  Thus  the  life 
of  the  ruling  race  in  India  is  a  constant  rebuke  to 
the  narrowness  of  caste  and  a  source  of  discontent 
to  the  caste-ridden  people,  because  it  reveals  to 
them  a  different  and  a  better  way  of  living. 

Nor    is    it    merely    this    new   type    of    non-caste 


THE   HINDU  CASTE   SYSTEM  147 

t 
western    life    that    appeals   to   them.      The   modern 

civilization  of  the  West,  with  its  humanizing  laws, 
its  exaltation  of  the  individual,  its  religious  freedom, 
its  new  and  broadening  education  and  culture,  its 
equal  rights  to  every  man,  its  many  institutions 
through  every  one  of  which  there  breathes  the 
Anglo-Saxon's  blessed  love  of  liberty,  the  home 
with  its  sanctified  affection  and  its  glorified  woman- 
hood, philanthropy  which  carries  with  an  even  hand 
its  sweet  services  to  the  high  and  the  low — to 
Pariah  as  to  the  Brahman, — all  these  institutions 
and  influences  are  at  work  like  a  mighty  leaven  in 
the  mind  and  heart  of  India.  And  the  people  can- 
not be  blind  to  this  influence;  and  it  is  gradually 
transforming  their  ideals  and  ambition. 

Connected  with  these  more  subtle  western  civil- 
izing agencies  are  found  the  material  agencies  which 
are  the  dread  foes  of  caste  exclusion.  The  chief 
among  these  is  the  railroad,  the  thirty  thousand 
miles  of  which  are  so  many  tongues  to  proclaim 
the  doom  of  past  narrowness.  The  Brahman,  with 
all  his  mean  pride,  cannot  forego  the  wonderful  con- 
veniences of  the  "  iron  road  and  the  fire-carriage " ; 
but  in  order  to  avail  himself  of  them,  he  must  sit 
an  hour  at  a  time  cheek  by  jowl  with  a  low-caste  — 


i48  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

it  may  be  a  Pariah  —  fellow-passenger.  The  railroad 
gnaws  at  the  vitals  of  caste  life  and  convictions. 

Next  to  it  come  the  schools.  Millions  of  youth 
are  trained  in  them  daily  to  regard  caste  as  an  un- 
worthy classification.  All  sections  are  taught  in 
the  same  classes ;  they  play  in  the  same  playground. 
In  both  places  the  lower  often  excels  the  higher 
caste  boy.  The  seeds  of  equality  and  a  common 
regard  are  thus  constantly  sown  among  the  youth 
of  all  sections  of  the  land.  If  it  astonished  the  re- 
cent educational  (Moseley)  Commission  which  went 
from  England  to  the  United  States  to  study  the 
educational  conditions  there,  when  it  saw  the  chil- 
dren of  the  President  of  the  country  studying  side 
by  side  with  the  children  of  day-labourers,  so  must 
it  seem  wonderful,  and  wonderfully  good,  to  a  stu- 
dent of  social  conditions  in  India,  to  behold  the 
child  of  a  Pariah  and  that  of  a  Brahman  preparing, 
side  by  side,  in  the  schoolroom,  for  the  responsibili- 
ties and  the  blessings  of  life. 

Many  other  agencies  similar  to  the  above  are 
doing  their  benign  levelling  work. 

The  government,  however,  is  the  great  leveller. 
In  all  its  gifts  of  offices,  in  all  posts  of  honour  and 
influence,  it  distributes  its  blessings  with  strict  im- 


THE   HINDU  CASTE  SYSTEM  149 

partiality,  so  far  as  caste  is  concerned.  It  wisely 
ignores  all  social  distinctions  and  depends  upon 
qualifications  of  culture  and  character  when  it  seeks 
men  to  conduct  its  affairs.  This  is  something  un- 
precedented in  the  land  of  Manu.  That  the  out- 
cast should  stand  an  equal  chance  with  the  high 
castes  for  positions  of  honour  and  emolument  was 
unknown  in  this  land  of  sharp  distinctions. 

And  even  more  fundamental  than  this  is  the 
blessing  of  equal  personal  and  political  rights.  In 
ancient  India,  such  an  idea  was  never  entertained. 
Before  British  rule  entered  the  land  it  was  never 
dreamed  that  priest,  prince,  and  beggar  —  and  that 
Brahman  and  Pariah  —  had  equal  rights  before 
the  law.  To-day  they  all  recognize  the  justice  of 
this  and  expect  it. 

Finally,  the  advent  of  Christianity,  with  power, 
into  the  land  has  brought  a  new  death-knell  to 
caste  supremacy.  We  have  seen  that  Indian  Chris- 
tian converts  abandon  all  other  customs  and  super- 
stitions with  greater  facility  than  they  do  those  of 
caste.  Its  roots  have  sunk  deepest  into  the  soil ' 
of  their  nature.  But  let  it  not  be  thought  that 
they  do  not  grow  stronger  against  caste  than  they 
used  to  be.  In  the  Indian  Christian  community 


ISO  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

there  is  developing  a  most  encouraging  movement 
toward  the  complete  eradication  of  caste  sentiment 
and  observance  within  the  Church  itself.  They 
are  more  sensible  than  ever  before  of  the  gross 
inconsistency  of  a  man's  taking  upon  himself  the 
sacred  name  of  Christ  and  at  the  same  time  sub- 
mitting to  the  dominance  of  caste.  Indian  Chris- 
tian anti-caste  organizations  are  now  at  work  seek- 
ing to  drive  out  of  the  Church  of  God  in  India  this 
Antichrist,  and  to  cultivate  the  true  spirit  and  ameni- 
ties of  Christian  fellowship  and  fraternal  communion. 

The  spirit  of  Christ  is  abroad  in  the  land  in  regen- 
erating and  transforming  power.  His  great  message 
to  the  world  was  the  common  fatherhood  of  God  and 
the  brotherhood  of  man.  And  the  Christian  Church 
is  growing  increasingly  true  to  the  message  of  its 
Leader  and  Lord  in  this  country.  Men  may  not  ac- 
cept the  Christian  call  to  believe  and  to  be  baptized ; 
but  they  cannot  be  blind  and  deaf  to  the  work  and  call 
of  the  Spirit  of  Christ  in  these  modern  times  of  thrill-  » 
ing  changes  and  opportunities. 

It  is  this  Christian  ideal  which  is  running  athwart 
the  most  ancient  and  cherished  institutions  and  customs 
of  India,  and  has  precipitated  a  conflict  such  as  the 
land  has  never  before  known. 


THE   HINDU  CASTE   SYSTEM  151 

But  the  end  is  not  yet,  and  caste  will  not  be  hurled^ 
down  from  its  high  pedestal  in  a  day.  It  is  a  mighty 
institution  which  has  its  root  in  deepest  sentiments  and 
is  sustained  by  cherished  antiquity  and  by  the  strongest 
passions  and  prejudices.  These  will  not  succumb  in  a 
brief  generation.  And  even  when  Christianity  shall 
have  triumphed  and  shall  have  driven  out  its  rival 
faith  from  the  land,  as  we  have  every  reason  to  believe 
that  it  will,  let  it  not  be  supposed  that  the  Christianity 
of  the  East  will  have  the  social  complexion  of  that  of 
the  West.  In  the  earliest  days  of  Christianity,  we  are 
told  by  the  great  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles  that  there 
were  "  heresies "  in  the  Church.  These  were  social 
heresies  or  class  divisions.  It  was  later  in  the  West 
that  "  heresy  "  became  an  error  of  belief.  The  Indian 
Church  will  also  have  heresies  of  life  rather  than  of 
thought.  The  caste  spirit  will  not  vanish  entirely 
from  India,  even  when  it  becomes  Christ's  land ;  be- 
cause while  India  is  always  indulgent  and  tolerant 
concerning  beliefs,  she  is  particular  about  class  dis- 
tinctions. And  this,  doubtless,  will  be  the  weakness 
of  the  Indian  Church  of  the  future.  But  she  will 
have  her  strong  points,  also,  and  in  these  she  will 
glory  and  through  them  glorify  her  exalted  Lord. 


CHAPTER  VI 

y 

THE   BHAGAVAD    GITA THE    HINDU    BIBLE 

THE  Bhagavad  Gita  (translated  "  The  Song  of  the 
Adorable  One "  and  "  The  Divine  Lay ")  is  rightly 
regarded  as  the  gem  of  all  Hindu  sacred  literature. 
Hindus  maintain  (and  few  will  question  them)  that 
in  beauty  of  language  and  in  elevation  of  thought 
it  stands  supreme  among  their  Shastras,  or  sacred 
writings. 

Educated  Hindus  proudly  claim  for  it  superiority  to 
all  sacred  books  of  other  faiths. 

Of  all  ancient  Brahmanical  writings  it  is  to-day  the 
most  cherished  by  the  members  of  that  faith.  The 
ancient  Rig  Veda  is  at  present  only  a  book  of  anti- 
quarian interest.  The  Upanishads,  which  are  the 
fountainhead  of  Hindu  thought  and  philosophy,  are 
only  the  text-books  and  treasure-houses  of  philoso- 
phers and  metaphysicians.  But  the  Divine  Lay  is 
extolled  and  used  alike  by  men  of  western  culture,  by 
conservative  pandits,  and  by  the  masses  as  their 
highest  book  of  doctrine  and  their  richest  treasury  of 

devotion. 

152 


THE  BHAGAVAD  GITA  —  THE  HINDU  BIBLE       153 

Even  many  Hindus  who  have  come  under  the  fas- 
cination of  the  Christ,  carry  with  them  upon  their 
journeyings  the  New  Testament  in  one  pocket 
and  the  Bhagavad  Gita  in  the  other,  as  the  com- 
mon guide  and  inspiration  of  their  quiet  hours  of 
meditation. 

It  is  thus  universally  recognized  that  there  is  no 
book  which  wields  a  larger  influence  than  this  in  the 
religious  life  of  the  two  hundred  and  thirty  millions  of 
Hindus  to-day ;  and  there  is  none  which  is  more  worthy 
to  be  called  the  Hindu  Bible. 

I 

In  strange  contrast  with  the  bulky  tomes  of  Brah- 
manism  and  of  the  great  epic,  Mahabharata  (which, 
with  its  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  lines,  is  the 
longest  epic  ever  written,  being  eight  times  as  long  as 
the  Odyssey  and  the  Iliad  put  together),  the  Bhagavad 
Gita  contains  only  seven  hundred  slohams,  and  is  not 
as  long  as  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark. 

The  date  of  the  origin  of  the  Song  is  very  much 
disputed.  There  are  Hindu  authorities  who  would 
carry  it  back  to  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  the  time  which 
is  assigned  for  the  first  recension  of  the  Mahabharata, 
of  which  the  Bhagavad  Gita  is  a  very  small  part.  But 


154  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE   AND  THOUGHT 

the  highest  authorities  find  conclusive  proof  that  it 
originated  about  the  second  or  third  century  of  our 
era,  and  was  then  inserted  as  a  part  of  an  episode  in 
the  narrative  of  the  great  epic. 

The  Mahabharata  is  a  great  poetic  narrative  of  a 
conflict  between  the  two  branches  of  the  Bharata 
family  —  the  Pandavas  and  the  Kauravas  —  for  the 
petty  kingdom  of  Hastinapura,  near  the  modern  city 
of  Delhi. 

The  two  forces  are  already,  in"  counter  array,  eager 
for  the  fray  on  the  battle-field  of  Kuruchetra.  The 
call  to  battle  has  already  been  blown  upon  the  mirac- 
ulous conchs  of  the  leaders  of  both  sides,  who 
are  seated  in  their  chariots  drawn  by  white  horses. 
Over  each  one  waves  his  personal  ensign.  Arjuna, 
the  noblest  of  the  five  brave  Pandava  leaders,  is  a 
man  of  heroic  traits  of  character ;  and  yet  within  him 
breathes  the  tenderest  sentiment  of  humanity.  He 
pauses  a  moment  ere  he  leads  his  mighty  hosts  against 
the  enemy ;  and,  as  he  looks  upon  his  own  kith  and 
kin  in  the  opposing  ranks,  he  is  overcome  by  the  stern 
voice  of  conscience  blending  with  humanitarian  im- 
pulses. Is  it  right,  can  it  possibly  be  right,  for  him  to 
go  forth  to  destroy  his  own  friends  and  relatives; 
shall  he  shed  the  blood  of  those  who  are  nearest  and 


THE   BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU   BIBLE       155 

dearest  to  him  upon  the  earth  ?  This  is  the  agonizing 
doubt  which  seizes  upon  him  at  this  time.  And  in 
his  distress  he  turns  to  his  friend  and  relative,  Krishna, 
who  has  declined  to  participate  in  the  war,  but  who 
had  volunteered  to  act  as  Arjuna's  charioteer.  And 
he  says  unto  him:  "Seeing  these  kinsmen,  O  Krishna, 
standing  (here)  desirous  to  engage  in  battle,  my 
limbs  droop  down ;  my  mouth  is  quite  dried  up ;  a 
tremor  comes  on  my  body;  and  my  hairs  stand  on 
end  ;  the  Gandiva  (bow)  slips  from  my  hand ;  my  skin 
burns  intensely;  I  am  unable,  too,  to  stand  up;  my 
mind  whirls  round,  as  it  were.  Even  those  for  whose 
sake  we  desire  sovereignty,  enjoyments,  and  pleas- 
ures, are  standing  here  for  battle,  abandoning  life 
and  wealth  —  preceptors,  fathers,  sons  as  well,  grand- 
fathers, maternal  uncles,  fathers-in-law,  grandsons, 
brothers-in-law,  as  also  other  relatives.  These  I  do 
not  wish  to  kill,  though  they  kill  me,  O  destroyer  of 
Madhu !  even  for  the  sake  of  sovereignty  over  the 
three  worlds,  how  much  less  than  for  this  earth 
(alone)?" 

Krishna  replied,  with  a  view  to  soothe  Arjuna's  per- 
turbed mind,  and  to  urge  him  on  to  battle. 

It  is  this  dialogue  between  the  hero  and  the  god 
which  constitutes  the  Bhagavad  Gita.  And  yet  one 


156  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE   AND  THOUGHT 

can  hardly  call  it  a  dialogue,  since  Krishna's  remarks 
make  up  more  than  nine-tenths  of  the  book. 

The  dialogue  is  one  of  the  favourite  forms  of 
Hindu  literature.  Most  of  the  Puranas  and  the 
Tantras  are  cast  in  that  form. 

It  seems  very  strange  that  this  book,  which  is  the 
favourite  exponent  of  a  faith  whose  very  essence  is 
non-resistance,  whose  genius  is  to  inculcate  the  pas- 
sive virtues,  should  have  found  its  motive  in  the  pur- 
pose of  the  god  Krishna  to  overcome,  in  the  warrior 
Arjuna,  those  worthy,  humane  sentiments  of  peace 
and  kindness  and  that  noble  resolution  to  forego  even 
the  kingdom  rather  than  to  acquire  it  through  the 
shedding  of  the  blood  of  his  relatives.  How  incon- 
gruous to  build  up  the  lofty  structure  of  a  faith  upon 
so  unethical,  unsocial,  and  cruel  a  foundation ! 

II 

The  Song  evidently  belongs  to  the  tendensschrift 
school  of  literature.  It  is  written  with  a  definite  aim 
and  purpose.  It  is  the  highest  exponent  of  Hindu 
Eclecticism.  The  three  great  schools  of  Brahmani- 
cal  thought  and  philosophy  —  the  Sankya,  the  Yoga, 
and  the  Vedanta  —  were  founded  more  than  twenty- 
five  centuries  ago  and  have  wielded  resistless  power 


THE  BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU  BIBLE       157 

in  the  shaping  of  religious  thought  in  India.  And 
perhaps  this  power  was  never  more  manifest  than  at 
the  present  time. 

But  these  schools  are,  in  their  main  issues,  mutu- 
ally antagonistic.  The  Sankya  philosophy  is  severely 
dualistic  and  even  has  little  use,  if  indeed  it  has  any  / 
place,  for  the  Divine  Being.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Vedanta  is  uncompromisingly  monistic.  Its  panthe- 
ism is  of  the  highest  spiritualistic  type  and  is  radically 
opposed  to  the  materialism  of  the  Sankya  school.  In 
.  one  school  the  Divine  Being  is  nothing  and  material- 
ism has  full  sway ;  while  in  the  other  Brahm  is  every- 
thing, and  all  that  appears  to  men  —  the  phenomenal 
—  is  false  and  illusive. 

Again,  as  to  the  method  of  redemption,  the  Yoga 
philosophy  advocates  renunciation,  self-effacement,  and 
all  the  forms  of  asceticism.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Sankya  philosophy  inculcates  action  as  the  em- 
bodiment of  the  duty  of  man,  through  which  alone  he 
can  attain  unto  absorption. 

Even  to  the  present  time  these  different  schools  of 
thought  not  only  prevail ;  they  have  also  begotten  and 
are  nourishing  different  schools  of  religious  life  and 
practice  which  present  different  ideals  and  enforce 
different  methods. 


158  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

The  Brahman  author,  or  authors,  of  the  Bhagavad 
Gita  was  inspired  with  the  laudable  ambition  of  har- 
monizing these  conflicting  teachings  and  of  blending 
their  peculiarities  into  one  consistent  whole,  which 
would  appeal  to  all  the  followers  of  the  many-sided 
Brahmanical  faith.  This  he  accomplished  with  rare 
beauty  of  language,  and  with  a  success  which  has  won 
admiration  and  acceptance  by  nearly  all  the  people  of 
India.  And  this  is  the  more  remarkable  since  the 
worship  of  Krishna  is  distinctly  a  part  of  the  Vaishna- 
vite  cult  of  Hinduism,  and  as  such  does  not  appeal  to 
the  Saivites,  or  the  worshippers  of  Siva. 

But  the  author,  naturally  and  inevitably,  failed  to 
produce  a  congruous  scheme  of  saving  truth  and 
religious  appeal.  The  result  is  that  we  see,  on  almost 
every  page,  contradictory  teachings  and  conflicting 
methods  of  salvation.  This,  of  course,  is  by  no  means 
fatal  to  it  in  the  estimation  of  Hindus,  with  whom 
consistency  has  never  been  a  foible,  and  in  the  eyes  of 
whom  two  mutually  contradictory  teachings  can  rest 
peacefully  side  by  side. 

Here  we  find  dualism  and  monism  locking  hands 
together,  and  the  three  ways  of  liberation  —  that  of 
ritual,  of  asceticism,  and  of  knowledge  —  not  only  find 
full  expression,  but  are  also  supplemented  by  the 


THE    BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU    BIBLE        159 

inculcation  of  faith  and  of  the  obligations  of  caste.  To 
a  Westerner,  this  jumbling  together  of  such  antagonis- 
tic ideas  and  methods  would  be  as  repulsive  as  it 
would  be  absurd.  But  the  Oriental  mind  works  on 
different  lines  from  the  Occidental,  and  is  never 
hampered  by  logical  inconsistency. 

The  Song  of  the  Adorable  One  is  divided  into  three 
chapters,  of  six  divisions  each. 

The  first  extols  the  benefits  of  the  Yoga  method  ; 
but  it  also  adds  that  action  should  be  supplemented  to 
Yoga  for  the  speediest  attainment  of  beatification. 

In  the  second  part,  the  pantheism  of  the  Vedanta 
is  inculcated,  and  Krishna  identifies  himself  with  the 
universal  Spirit  and  claims  adoration  as  such. 

In  the  third  part,  an  effort  is  made  to  blend  the 
Sankya  and  the  Vedanta  conceptions,  an  effort  which 
largely  permeates  the  whole  book.  That  is,  it  claims 
that  prakriti,  or  elemental  nature,  and  the  soul,  or 
atma,  find  their  source  in  Brahm ;  and  thus  it  prac- 
tically vitiates  the  fundamental  teachings  of  both 
systems.  At  the  same  time,  it  also  teaches  the 
separate  existence  of  individual  souls,  which  is  anti- 
Vedantic.  * 

As  we  study  carefully  the  contents  of  this  remark- 
able work,  we  are  impressed  equally  with  its  excel- 


160  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

lences  and  defects,  with  its  sublime  teachings  and 
absurd  contentions.  Generally  speaking,  it  may  be 
said  to  be  characterized  by  notions  which  are,  at 
the  same  time,  supremely  attractive  to  the  East  and 
unintelligible  and  repellent  to  the  West. 

i.  Considering  first  its  teaching  concerning  God, 
we  find  emphasized  that  monistic  teaching  of  Hindu 
Pantheism  which  has  been  the  dominant  note  in  the 
faith  of  India  from  the  first.  But  it  is  not  the  strictly 
spiritual  and  the  unequivocal  Pantheism  of  Vedan- 
tism,  which  is  purely  idealistic  and  which  bluntly 
c  enies  the  existence  of  everything  but  Brahm  itself. 
It  is  rather  a  mixture  of  the  dual  and  the  non-dual 
teaching  of  the  two  dominant,  contending  philoso- 
phies of  the  land.  Krishna  tells  us  that  he  is  not 
only  the  supreme  Spirif,  but  also  that  the  material  uni- 
verse is  a  part  of  himself.  "  O  Son  of  Pritha !  I  am 
the  Kratu,  I  am  the  Yagna,  I  am  the  Svadha,  I  am 
the  product  of  the  herbs,  I  am  the  sacred  verse.  I 
too  am  the  sacrificial  butter,  I  the  fire,  I  the  offering. 
I  am  the  father  of  this  universe,  the  mother,  the 
creator,  the  grandsire,  the  thing  to  be  known,  the 
means  of  sanctification,  .  .  .  the  source  and  that  in 
which  it  merges,  the  support,  the  receptacle,  and  the 
inexhaustible  seed.  All  entities  which  are  of 


THE   BHAGAVAD   GIT  A  —  THE   HINDU  BIBLE        161 

the  quality  of  goodness,  and  those  which  are  of  the 
quality  of  passion  and  of  darkness,  know  that  they 
are,  indeed,  all  from  me ;  I  am  not  in  them,  but 
they  are  in  me.  The  whole  universe,  deluded  by 
these  three  states  of  mind,  develops  from  the  quali- 
ties, does  not  know  me  who  am  beyond  them  and 
inexhaustible  ;  for  this  delusion  of  mine,  ...  is  divine 
and  difficult  to  transcend." 

"  There  is  nothing  else  higher  than  myself ;  all 
this  is  woven  upon  me  like  numbers  of  pearls  upon 
a  thread.  I  am  the  taste  in  water,  I  am  the  light  in 
the  sun  and  the  moon." 1 

These  and  many  other  similar  expressions  represent 
an  evident  effort  to  graft  the  materialistic  conceptions 
of  the  Sankya  upon  the  Vedanta,  which  is  in  nothing 
more  emphatic  than  in  denying  the  existence  of  all 
that  is  phenomenal  and  material. 

Krishna  gave  to  Arjuna,  at  the  latter's  request,  a 
vision  of  his  true  Self  separate  from,  and  infinitely 
higher  than,  the  humble  and  illusive  garb  of  his 
incarnation.  And  it  was  to  him  "  as  if  in  the  heavens 
the  lustre  of  a  thousand  suns  burst  forth  all  at  once." 

1  The  translation  which  I  follow  here  is  that  of  Mr.  Telang,  in  "  The 
Sacred  Books  of  the  East,"  which  is,  on  the  whole,  both  exact  and  more 
intelligible  than  most  other  translations. 


162  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

And  what  a  vision  !  Gazing  upon  it,  Arjuna  exclaims, 
"  O  God !  I  see  within  your  body  the  gods,  as 
also  all  the  groups  of  various  being;  and  the  lord 
Brahm  seated  on  his  lotus  seat,  and  all  the  sages 
and  celestial  snakes.  I  see  you,  who  are  of  count- 
less forms,  possessed  of  many  arms,  stomachs,  mouths, 
and  eyes  on  all  sides.  And,  O  Lord  of  the  Universe, 
O  you  of  all  forms!  I  do  not  see  your  end,  middle, 
or  beginning.  ...  I  believe  you  to  be  the  eternal 
being.  I  see  you  void  of  beginning,  middle,  or  end  — 
of  infinite  power,  of  unnumbered  arms,  and  having 
the  sun  and  the  moon  for  eyes,  and  having  a  mouth 
like  a  blazing  fire  and  heating  the  universe  with  your 
radiance.  For  this  space  between  heaven  and  earth 
and  all  the  quarters  are  pervaded  by  you  alone. 
Looking  at  this  wonderful  and  terrible  form  of  yours, 
O  high-souled  one!  the  three  worlds  are  affrighted. 
For  here  these  groups  of  gods  are  entering  into 
you.  ...  Our  principal  warriors,  also,  are  rapidly 
entering  your  mouths,  fearful  and  horrific  by  reason 
of  your  jaws.  And  some  with  their  heads  smashed 
are  seen  stuck  in  the  spaces  between  the  teeth.  As 
the  many  rapid  currents  of  a  river's  waters  run 
toward  the  sea  alone,  so  do  the  heroes  of  this  human 
world  enter  your  mouths  blazing  all  around.  As 


THE   BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU  BIBLE        163 

butterflies,  with  increased  velocity,  enter  a  blazing 
fire  to  their  destruction,  so  too  do  these  people  enter 
your  mouths  with  increased  velocity,  only  to  their 
destruction.  Swallowing  all  these  people,  you  are 
licking  them  over  and  over  again  from  all  sides 
with  your  blazing  mouths ! " 

Here  we  verily  have  a  fine  combination  of  the 
sublime  and  the  ridiculous !  The  Apostle  of  Jesus 
was  given  to  witness  a  vision  of  heavenly  things  such 
as  could  not  be  uttered.  This  disciple  of  Krishna 
does  not  hesitate  to  paint  in  such  glowing  terms  a 
vision  of  the  divine,  that,  to  all  but  a  Hindu,  the 
picture  seems  not  only  incongruous  but  highly  absurd 
and  disgusting.  One  can  hardly  imagine  that  any 
mortal,  to  whom  a  vision  of  the  divine  being  had 
been  granted,  could  fail  so  utterly  to  furnish  us  with 
an  edifying  description  of  the  same. 

In  this  Song,  Krishna  claims  to  be,  at  the  same  time, 
absolute  Deity  and  the  supreme  incarnation.  In 
nothing  do  the  East  and  the  West  differ  more  radi- 
cally than  in  their  teaching  concerning  incarnation  or 
"  descent"  In  Christianity,  God  only  once  became 
incarnate ;  and  in  that  Incarnation  every  believing 
soul  has  found  its  needs  fully  satisfied.  Never,  in  all 
these  two  thousand  years,  did  our  Lord  Christ  satisfy 


1 64  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

more  completely  the  human  soul  and  bring  rest  to 
more  human  hearts  than  at  the  present  time. 

To  the  Christian,  Jesus  represents  the  ultimate 
of  God's  earthly  manifestation,  as  He  does  the  com- 
plete realization  of  human  salvation. 

But  in  Hinduism,  incarnation  is  presented  as  a 
continuous  passion  of  the  Deity.  The  absolute 
Spirit  forever  amuses  itself  with  the  "sacred  sport" 
of  ever  changing  emanations  and  manifestations. 
Myriads  of  "  descents  "  are  recorded  in  their  sacred 
books,  of  all  degrees  and  forms  of  grotesqueness, 
and  not  a  few  of  unblushing  vileness.  It  is  an 
interesting  fact  that  the  same  Krishna  who  poses, 
and  by  millions  of  Hindus  is  accepted,  as  the  Su- 
preme Deity,  is  nevertheless  represented  in  the 
most  popular  books  of  Hinduism  to-day  —  the  Pu- 
ranas,  which  are  known  in  their  legends  to  all 
Hindus  and  which  wield  a  supreme  influence  over 
them  in  their  life  —  as  a  very  different  being.  In 
these  books  the  story  of  Krishna  is  one  of  fetid, 
unblushing  immorality  and  voluptuousness.  The 
publishing  of  these  narratives  in  the  English  lan- 
guage in  a  western  land  at  the  present  time  would 
be  considered  a  crime  punishable  with  imprison- 
ment. And  thus  this  Hindu  god,  who  is  the  most 


THE   BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE  HINDU  BIBLE        165 

popular  in  India  and  who  appeals  most  to  the  im- 
agination of  the  people,  led  a  life  upon  earth  whose 
record  is  a  story  of  immorality  which  brings  a  crim- 
son blush  to  the  pure. 

But,  to  return  to  the  Hindu  conception  of  incar- 
nation, it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  unique  in 
this  particular;  viz.  that  it  regards  the  Deity  as 
continually  returning  to  the  world  to  visit  and  to 
help  human  beings.  In  the  Gita,  Krishna  re- 
marks :  — 

"  Whensoever,  O  Descendant  of  Bharata !  piety 
languishes  and  impiety  is  in  the  ascendant,  I  create 
myself.  I  am  born,  age  after  age,  for  the  protection 
of  the  good,  for  the  destruction  of  evil-doers,  and 
the  establishment  of  piety." 

The  inadequacy  of  any  one  incarnation  is  here 
proclaimed,  and  the  idea  of  constant  communication 
with  and  impartation  of  himself  to  humanity  through 
repeated  descents  is  here  inculcated.  And  it  is  a 
fundamental  conception  of  Hinduism  —  a  conception 
which  differentiates  it  essentially  from  the  Christian 
religion. 

From  this  remark  of  Krishna,  who  speaks  here 
as  the  Supreme  Being,  one  would  suppose  that 
Hindu  incarnations  have  been,  and  still  are,  defi- 


166  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

nitely  intended  to  enhance  human  piety  upon  earth, 
and  have  been  such  as  to  accomplish  this  purpose. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  historic  or  legendary  incar- 
nations of  India,  as  they  are  now  recorded  in  their 
sacred  books,  have  practically  no  ethical  or  spiritual 
content.  I  defy  any  Hindu  to  take  the  narratives 
of  these  descents,  as  found  in  the  Puranas  and 
other  books,  and  show  from  them  that  there  was 
anything  more  than  physical  and  social  relief  to 
men  intended  by  them  or  accomplished  through 
them.  I  have  yet  to  find,  in  those  narratives,  the 
conception  of  human  sin  and  moral  depravity  and 
of  the  purpose  of  the  incarnation  to  break  the 
fetters  of  sin  and  to  bring  spiritual  light  and  moral 
beauty  to  those  among  whom  it  manifested  itself. 
The  gulf  which  thus  stands  between  the  Hindu 
ideal  of  incarnation  and  the  real  incarnations  which 
are  recorded  in  Hindu  literature,  including  that  of 
Krishna  himself,  is  wide  and  impassable.  One  has 
well  said  that  the  incarnation  of  Krishna  is  an 
incarnation  of  lust,  and  the  record  of  his  16,100 
wives  and  180,000  sons  is  but  a  suggestion  of  the 
correctness  of  this  estimate.  Even  the  incarnation 
of  Buddha,  which,  doubtless,  is  the  highest  and  best 
among  those  incorporated  into  the  Hindu  Pantheon, 


THE  BHAGAVAD   GIT  A  —  THE   HINDU  BIBLE       167 

is   expressly  stated   by  Hindu  authorities   to   be   for 
the  purpose  of  deceiving  and  destroying  the  people. 

When  one  begins  to  compare  the  picture  of  the 
Christian  Incarnation  with  that  of  any  and  of  all 
those  that  occupy  the  Hindu  mind,  and  fill  many 
volumes  of  Hindu  literature,  we  pass  from  noon- 
day light  into  Egyptian  darkness. 

2.  The  doctrine  of  atma,  or  the  human  self,  or 
soul,  is  more  in  accordance  with  the  Sankya  than 
the  Vedantic  school.  The  individual  soul  is  repre- 
sented, not  as  a  part  of  the  Supreme  Soul,  which 
is  the  distinct  doctrine  of  the  Adwaitha  philosophy, 
but  as  a  separate  entity  which  is  immutable  and 
eternal.  Listen  to  Krishna's  argument  to  Arjuna, 
in  order  to  urge  him  into  battle  and  to  shed  the 
blood  of  his  friends :  "  Learned  men  grieve  not 
for  the  living  nor  the  dead.  Never  did  I  not  exist, 
nor  you,  nor  these  rulers  of  men ;  nor  will  any  of 
us  ever  hereafter  cease  to  be.  As  in  this  body, 
infancy  and  youth  and  old  age  come  to  the  em- 
bodied self,  so  does  the  acquisition  of  another  body; 
a  sensible  man  is  not  deceived  about  that.  .  .  . 
There  is  no  existence  for  that  which  is  unreal ; 
there  is  no  non-existence  for  that  which  is  real.  .  .  .J 
These  bodies,  appertaining  to  the  embodied  self 


1 68  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE   AND  THOUGHT 

which  is  eternal,  indestructible,  and  indefinable,  are 
said  to  be  perishable ;  therefore  do  engage  in  battle, 
O  descendant  of  Bharata!  He  who  thinks  it  to  be 
the  killer  and  he  who  thinks  it  to  be  killed,  both 
know  nothing.  It  kills  not,  is  not  killed.  It  is  not 
born,  nor  does  it  ever  die,  nor,  having  existed, 
does  it  exist  no  more.  Unborn,  everlasting,  un- 
changeable, and  primeval,  it  is  not  killed  when  the 
body  is  killed.  .  .  .  But  even  if  you  think  that  it 
is  constantly  born,  and  constantly  dies,  still,  O  you 
mighty  man  of  arms !  you  ought  not  to  grieve  thus. 
For  to  one  that  is  born,  death  is  certain;  and  to 
one  that  dies,  birth  is  certain." 

There  is  a  great  deal  more  in  this  line  of  the 
indestructibility  of  the  soul;  but  nothing  is  said  of 
the  Vedantic  idea  that  the  soul  has  no  real,  sepa- 
rate existence,  and  that  even  this  illusory  existence, 
in  human  conditions,  will  terminate  when  the  self 
shall  be  recognized  to  be,  as  it  really  is,  an  un- 
severed  and  inseparable  part  of  the  Supreme  Soul. 

The  eternal  existence  of  the  soul  is  posited  by  every 
school  of  Hindu  thought.  In  the  Sankya  philos- 
ophy, the  human  self,  as  we  have  seen,  is  a  separate, 
uncreated  entity ;  and  the  teaching  of  the  Divine  Lay 
concerning  it  is  in  harmony  with  this.  And  it  must 


THE   BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU   BIBLE        169 

be  confessed  that  in  many  respects  this  doctrine  is  in- 
ferior to  the  Vedantic,  which  emphasizes  the  spiritual 
character,  and  the  divine  origin  and  destiny,  of  the 
soul. 

3.  The  doctrine  of  Liberation,  or  of  Redemption, 
as  found  in  the  Bhagavad  Gita,  is  a  strange  combina- 
tion of  all  the  ways  which  Brahmanism  has  inculcated 
through  its  many  schools,  with  other  ways  here  added. 
"  In  every  way  men  follow  in  my  path,"  declared 
Krishna.  In  the  pursuance  of  any  religious  practices 
whatever,  men  were  assured  that  they  would  be  accept- 
able if  they  were  only  Krishna-olaters. 

(i)  But  the  highest  path  which  leads  unto  God 
is  the  path  of  knowledge  (Gnand).  "  Sacrifices  of 
various  sorts  are  laid  down  in  the  Vedas.  Know 
them  all  to  be  produced  from  action,  and  knowing  this 
you  will  be  released  from  the  fetters  of  this  world. 
The  sacrifice  of  knowledge  is  superior  to  the  sacrifice 
of  wealth,  for  action  is  wholly  and  entirely  compre- 
hended in  knowledge.  .  .  .  Even  if  you  are  the  most 
sinful  of  all  sinful  men,  you  will  cross  over  all  tres- 
passes by  means  of  the  boat  of  knowledge  alone.  As 
a  fire  well  kindled,  O  Arjuna!  reduces  fuel  to  ashes, 
so  the  fire  of  knowledge  reduces  all  actions  to  ashes. 
For  there  is  in  this  world  no  means  of  sanctification 


170  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND  THOUGHT 

like  knowledge,  and  that  one  perfected  by  devotion 
finds  within  one's  self  in  time.  He  who  has  faith, 
whose  senses  are  restrained,  and  who  is  assiduous, 
obtains  knowledge.  Obtaining  knowledge  he  acquires, 
without  delay,  the  highest  tranquillity.  .  .  .  Therefore, 
O  descendant  of  Bharata!  destroy  with  the  sword  of 
knowledge  these  misgivings  of  yours  which  fill  your 
mind,  and  which  are  produced  from  ignorance."  "  He 
who  is  possessed  of  knowledge,  who  is  always  devoted, 
and  whose  worship  is  addressed  to  one  only,  is 
esteemed  highest.  For  to  the  man  of  knowledge  I 
am  dear  above  all  things,  and  he  is  dear  to  me.  All 
these  are  noble,  but  the  man  possessed  of  knowledge 
is  deemed  by  me  to  be  my  own  self." 

From  time  immemorial  Indian  sages  have  looked 
upon  God  as  the  Supreme  Intelligence ;  He  is  the 
absolute  Wisdom,  and  to  know  Him  or  it,  and  to  know 
that  "  thou  art "  (Tat  twam  asi),  this  is  the  highest  wis- 
dom (Brahma  Gnana],  and  it  gives  immediate  entrance 
into  the  heaven  of  beatification  or  of  absorption.  And 
the  only  sin  which  such  a  man,  and  which  this  system 
of  thought,  recognizes  is  the  sin  of  ignorance  (Avidia); 
that  is,  the  folly,  or  stupidity,  of  thinking  that  one's 
soul  is  separate  from  the  divine  Soul.  To  know,  under 
these  mundane  conditions  of  delusion  (Maya),  and 


THE   BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU  BIBLE       171 

while  under  the  tyranny  of  passion  and  of  action 
(Karma),  that  I  am,  after  all,  identical  with  the  divine 
Spirit,  and  that  the  thought  of  a  separate  existence  is 
a  snare  and  a  bondage,  —  this  is  the  immediate  shat- 
tering of  my  earthly  bondage  and  the  full  entrance  of 
my  soul  (like  a  drop  of  water  to  its  mother  ocean)  into 
the  eternal  peace  and  tranquillity  (Sayutcha)  of  the 
godhead  —  a  state  of  unconscious  calm  which  shall 
never  after  be  disturbed. 

Thus  the  highest  way  of  salvation,  as  taught  by 
Hindus  of  all  classes,  is  the  way  of  knowledge.  It  is 
the  highest  step  in  the  progress  of  human  redemption. 
All  other  ways  of  salvation  are  but  preliminary,  or 
stepping-stones,  to  this.  There  is  no  return  to  the 
bondage  of  this  world  of  Him  who  has  crossed  the 
river  of  death  "in  the  boat  of  knowledge."  All  others 
must  again  return  and  further,  by  new  births,  the 
cause  of  the  soul's  emancipation. 

(2)  The  second  path  of  liberation  here  inculcated  is 
that  of  self-restraint,  of  asceticism.  From  time  imme- 
morial the  ascetic  has  been  India's  ideal  of  a  man  of 
piety.  He  is  a  man  who  has  turned  his  back  upon 
the  pleasures  of  the  world,  even  its  harmless  amuse- 
ments and  physical  enjoyments,  and  has  given  himself 
to  stern  rigid  self-denial.  By  thus  denying  himself 


172  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

every  pleasure  that  body  can  bring  and  every  satisfac- 
tion that  human  society  can  furnish ;  yea,  more,  by  a 
renunciation  of  everything  worldly  to  the  extent  of 
supreme  physical  pain  and  social  deprivation,  he  sepa- 
rates and  weans  himself  from  all  that  is  temporal,  that 
he  may  pass  on  in  sadness  up  the  pathway  of  redemp- 
tion. This  is  the  way  of  Yoga;  and  the  Yogi  to- 
day finds  highest  admiration  in  India  as  its  ideal 
of  life. 

In  the  Divine  Lay  also  this  pathway  of  Yoga  finds 
emphasis  and  exaltation. 

"The  devotee  whose  self  is  contented  with  know- 
ledge and  experience,  who  is  unmoved,  who  has 
restrained  his  senses,  and  to  whom  a  sod,  a  stone,  and 
gold  are  alike,  is  said  to  be  devoted.  ...  A  devotee 
should  constantly  devote  himself  to  abstraction, 
remaining  in  a  secret  place,  alone,  with  his  mind  and 
self  restrained,  without  expectations  and  without  be- 
longings. Fixing  his  seat  firmly  in  a  clean  place,  not 
too  high  nor  too  low,  and  covered  over  with  a  sheet 
of  cloth,  a  deerskin,  and  kusa  grass  —  and  there 
seated  on  that  seat,  fixing  his  mind  exclusively  on 
one  point  with  the  working  of  the  mind  and  sense 
restrained,  he  should  practise  devotion  for  the  purity  of 
self.  .  .  .  Thus  constantly  devoting  himself  to  abstrac- 


THE  BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU  BIBLE       173 

tion,  a  devotee  whose  mind  is  restrained  attains  that 
tranquillity  which  culminates  in  final  emancipation 
and  assimilation  with  me.  .  .  .  The  self -res  trained, 
embodied  self  lies  at  ease  within  the  city  of  nine 
portals,  renouncing  all  actions  by  the  mind,  not  doing 
or  causing  anything  to  be  done." 

This  path  of  abstraction  and  asceticism  leaves 
the  soul  to  theosophic  knowledge,  which  is  con- 
summated in  the  supreme  bliss  of  assimilation  with 
the  Divine. 

So  enamoured  has  India  been  of  this  method  of  life 
throughout  the  centuries  that  Yoga  has  been  reduced 
to  a  science,  and  has  been  elaborated  to  a  degree 
which  is  ridiculous  and  almost  idiotic.  Listen,  for  in- 
stance, to  Krishna's  instructions  where  he  speaks  of 
the  ascetic  as  "  holding  his  body,  head,  and  neck  even 
and  unmoved,  remaining  steady,  looking  at  the  tip  of 
his  own  nose,"  etc.  These  ridiculous  posturings  and 
idiotic  attitudes  cannot,  as  has  been  well  said  by 
Earth,  but  lead  to  idiocy  or  to  a  loss  of  all  mental 
aptitude. 

The  ultimate  aim  of  Yoga  is  to  reduce  the  soul 
to  tranquillity  and  quiescence,  by  abstracting  the 
mind  from  all  things  earthly,  and  thus  leading  to 
cessation  from  action ;  for  action  is  said  to  lead  to 


174  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

new  fruit,  which  must  be  eaten  by  the  soul;  and 
for  this  purpose  new  births  are  necessary,  which 
delay  final  absorption  in  the  deity. 

The  spirit  of  Hinduism  is  thus  evident  in  its  ex- 
altation of  this  method  of  life.  It  has  made  the 
path  of  abstraction  and  the  elimination  of  every 
thought,  emotion,  and  ambition,  its  ideal.  In  other 
words,  man,  by  self-repression  and  the  effacement  of 
every  faculty  of  mind  and  body,  is  to  attain  unto 

V  final  beatification  or  emancipation.  This  is  an  end 
in  itself,  according  to  the  Hindu  plan  of  life. 

In  Christianity,  on  the  other  hand,  self-realization 
and  not  self-effacement  must  be  the  consummation 
of  life.  The  way  of  the  Cross,  that  is,  the  path  of 
self-denial,  is  indeed  most  rigidly  enjoined;  but  it  is 
the  denial  of  the  lower  self,  the  meanest  passions  of 
the  soul,  in  order  that  the  highest  faculties  may 
find  complete  realization.  Thus,  in  Christianity, 
also,  asceticism  has  a  place  of  value ;  but  it  is  as  a 
means  to  a  higher  end,  and  that  is,  perfect  growth 
and  development  of  the  man  unto  the  "measure  of 
the  stature  of  the  fulness  of  Christ." 

^  (3)  It  also  possesses  the  distinction  of  emphasiz- 
ing works  or  action  as  necessary  to  salvation.  In- 
deed, the  Bhagavad  Gita  is  unique  among  the  books 


THE   BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU   BIBLE       175 

of  India  in  teaching  that  action  is  superior  to  re- 
nunciation. 

Sri  Krishna  says :  "  Renunciation  and  pursuit  of 
action  are  both  instruments  of  happiness.  But  of 
the  two,  pursuit  of  action  is  superior  to  renunciation 
of  action." 

This  is,  indeed,  strange  teaching  in  the  realm  of 
Hindu  literature,  where  action  is  universally  taught 
to  be  both  in  itself  an  evil  and  to  be  the  cause  of 
sin.  Krishna,  by  some  magic  of  his  own  power, 
here  reverses  the  ordinary  Hindu  teaching.  "  He 
who  has  controlled  his  senses  and  who  identifies 
his  self  with  every  being,  is  not  tainted,  though  he 
performs  actions."  "  He  who,  casting  off  all  attach- 
ment, performs  actions,  dedicating  them  to  Brahm, 
is  not  tainted  by  sin,  as  the  lotus  leaf  is  not  tainted 
by  water."  Indeed,  we  are  told  that  some  "  perform 
actions  for  attaining  purity  of  self."  Thus  we  see 
inculcated  the  peculiarly  un-Hindu  doctrine  that  he 
who  works  for  God  is  for  that  reason  absolved  from 
the  fruit  of  his  action ;  yea,  more,  by  his  very  acts 
attains  unto  purity,  and  approaches  the  consumma- 
tion of  absorption.  Still  more,  the  very  motive  of 
Krishna,  in  this  Divine  Song,  is  to  stir  up  the  war- 
like courage  of  Arjuna  and  to  lead  him  into  the 


176  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

bloody  activities  of  war.  "  Therefore  do  you,  too, 
perform  actions,  as  was  done  by  men  of  olden  times." 

But  action,  in  order  that  it  may  be  effective,  must 
be  according  to  prescribed  rules.  Any  work  which 
is  inculcated  in  the  sacred  books  is  both  sacred  and 
useful  in  the  scheme  of  redemption.  And  among 
these  prescribed  works,  few  are  more  useful  than 
the  performance  of  sacrifice.  Men  "  have  their  sins 
destroyed  by  sacrifice.  Those  who  eat  the  nectar- 
like  leavings  of  the  sacrifice  prepare  for  the  eternal 
Brahm.  This  world  is  not  for  those  who  perform 
no  sacrifice.  Thus  sacrifices  of  various  sorts  are 
laid  down  in  the  Vedas.  Know  them  all  produced 
from  action,  and  knowing  this  you  will  be  released 
from  the  fetters  of  this  world." 

Idolatry,  also,  is  a  part  of  this  sacred  duty.  "  De- 
siring the  success  of  action,  men  in  this  world  wor- 
ship the  divinities,  for  in  this  world  of  the  mortals, 
the  success  produced  by  action  is  soon  obtained." 
"  Those  who  worship  the  divinities  go  to  the  divini- 
ties, and  my  worshippers,  too,  go  to  me."  "  Even 
those,  O  Son  of  Kunti,  who  being  devotees  of  other 
divinities  worship  with  faith,  worship  me  only,  but 
irregularly.  For  I  am  the  enjoyer  as  well  as  Lord 
of  all  sacrifices.  But  they  know  me  not  truly,  there- 


THE  BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU  BIBLE        177 

fore  do  they  fall,"  i.e.  they  return  to  the  world  of 
mortals.  This  teaching  may  be  called  polytheism 
rather  than  idolatry.  And  yet  at  the  time  this  book 
was  written,  polytheism  had  already  degenerated  into 
idolatry. 

The  most  definite  and  multitudinous  courses  of 
action  are  those  enforced  by  the  caste  system.  And 
these  also  are  emphasized  in  this  song.  Krishna  here 
informs  us  that  he  is  the  author  of  the  caste  system. 
"  The  four-fold  division  of  castes  was  created  by  me 
according  to  the  apportionment  of  qualities  and 
duties."  Elsewhere,  in  Hindu  writings,  we  are 
abundantly  informed  that  Brahm  created  these  four 
divisions  of  men  from  his  head,  his  shoulders,  his 
loins,  and  his  feet,  respectively.1 

He  only  lives  well  and  works  worthily  who  lives 
in  strict  accordance  with  caste  rules,  and  who  works 
in  obedience  to  the  dictates  of  caste  tyranny.  We 
are  here  informed  that  "one's  own  duty,  though 
defective,  is  better  than  another's  duty  well  per- 
formed. Death  in  performing  one's  own  duty  is 
preferable;  the  performance  of  the  duty  of  others  is 
dangerous."  Here,  of  course,  "one's  own  duty" 
is  the  duty  prescribed  to  a  man  by  the  Hindu  caste 

1  See  Chapters  IV  and  V,  on  Caste. 


178  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

system.  "  The  duties  of  Brahmans,  Kshatriyas,  and 
Vaisyas,  and  of  Sudras,  too,  O  terror  of  your  foes, 
are  distinguished  according  to  the  qualities  born  of 
nature.  Tranquillity,  restraint  of  the  sense,  pen- 
ance, purity,  forgiveness,  straightforwardness,  also 
knowledge,  experience,  and  belief  in  the  future  world, 
this  is  the  natural  duty  of  the  Brahmans.  Valour, 
glory,  courage,  dexterity,  not  slinking  away  from 
battle,  gifts,  exercise  of  lordly  power,  this  is  the 
natural  duty  of  Kshatriyas.  Agriculture,  tending 
cattle,  trade,  this  is  the  natural  duty  of  Vaisyas. 
And  the  natural  duty  of  Sudras,  too,  consists  in 
service.  Every  man  intent  on  his  own  respective 
duties  obtains  perfection."  And,  again,  "  One's  duty, 
though  defective,  is  better  than  another's  duty  well 
performed.  Performing  the  duty  prescribed  by 
nature  one  does  not  incur  sin.  One  should  not 
abandon  a  natural  duty  though  tainted  with  evil." 
/  Thus  the  most  stupendous  system  of  social  and 
religious  evil  that  the  world  has  ever  known — the 
Hindu  caste  system  —  is  here  boldly  taught  and 
inculcated  as  the  most  sacred  duty  of  life.  One  man 
is  born  for  pious  leadership,  another  born  to  fight, 
another  born  for  menial  service;  and  woe  be  to  any 
one  of  them  who  abandons  this  so-called  "natural 


THE   BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU   BIBLE       179 

duty  "  and  strives  for  a  betterment  or  a  change  of  life ! 
This  is  the  divinely  inculcated  system  of  bondage 
which  has  enthralled  India  for  twenty-five  centuries. 

But  it  is  gratifying  to  know  that,  though  taught 
and  inculcated  in  this  highest  book  of  their  faith, 
Hindus  are  beginning  to  denounce  the  whole  system. 
Both  a  social  and  a  religious  consciousness  are  be- 
ginning to  rebel  against  its  very  existence. 

But  we  pass  from  this  lowest  aspect  of  "  action " 
to  the  highest  when  we  remark  that  all  acts  should, 
according  to  Krishna,  be  free  from  attachment.  No 
duty  is  more  frequently  enforced  in  the  Bhagavad  Gita 
than  that  of  detachment  in  religious  activity;  nor  is 
there  any  higher  than  this  within  the  whole  compass 
of  this  Song.  It  is  the  duty  of  man  to  work  out  right- 
eousness and  to  exercise  virtue  without  regard  to  the 
results  or  the  fruits  of  his  action.  It  is  the  high- 
water  mark  of  the  teaching  of  the  book. 

"  Your  business  is  with  action  alone ;  not  by  any 
means  with  fruit.  Let  not  the  fruit  of  action  be 
your  motive  to  action."  "  Wretched  are  those  whose 
motive  to  action  is  the  fruit  of  action."  Therefore, 
perform  all  action,  which  must  be  performed,  with- 
out attachment.  For  a  man,  performing  action  with- 
out attachment,  attains  the  Supreme.  "Forsaking  all 


i8o  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

attachment  to  the  fruit  of  action,  always  contented, 
dependent  on  none,  he  does  nothing  at  all,  though  he 
engages  in  action.  Devoid  of  expectations,  restraining 
the  mind  and  the  self,  and  casting  off  all  belongings, 
he  incurs  no  sin." 

We  must  not,  however,  give  to  this  detachment  a 
Christian  value.  For  it  is  a  part  of  Hindu  thought 
to  condemn  every  emotion  and  sentiment,  however 
lofty  as  an  asset  of  life.  It  regards  every  desire,  how- 
ever noble  in  itself,  and  every  sentiment,  however  ex- 
alted, as  essentially  evil ;  for  it  is  a  momentary  barrier 
to  that  equilibrium  and  quiescence  of  soul  which  the 
Hindu  has  always  maintained  to  be  the  highest  culti- 
vation of  the  self.  Therefore,  action,  in  order  to  be 
of  any  permanent  value,  must  be  severed  from  every 
passion,  desire,  or  expectation.  And  thus  the  Hindu 
does  not  here  seek  so  much  the  existence  of  pure 
altruism  as  he  does  the  absence  of  desire,  which  means 
soul  unrest  and  the  removal  of  one  of  the  barriers  to 
soul  emancipation.  It  is,  he  says,  when  love  and  every 
other  passion  cools  off  into  a  quiet  intellectual  calm, 
and  the  soul  is  animated,  not  by  sentiment,  but  by 
clear  vision,  that  Sayutcha,  or  absorption  into  the 
Brahm,  is  attained. 

If,   then,   detachment    is    a    keyword    to    Higher 


THE  BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU  BIBLE        181 

Hinduism  and  man  is  forbidden  to  seek  after  any 
good,  even  the  highest,  in  connection  with  his  religious 
activities,  what  then  can  be  an  adequate  motive  to  a 
religious  life  of  good  works  ? 

Here  is  introduced  another  keyword  of  this  Eclec- 
ticism —  the  word  Bhakti. 

The  doctrine  of  Bhakti  finds  a  supreme  place  in 
the  Divine  Song.  Bhakti  means  devotion  or  love  to 
Krishna  himself.  Perhaps  the  Christian  word  "Faith" 
best  expresses  the  full  meaning  of  the  word  Bhakti. 
Krishna  says,  in  substance,  Have  no  attachment  to 
the  results  of  your  acts;  but  be  attached  to  me  who 
am  the  supreme  God,  and  live  and  act  according  to 
the  noble  impulse  of  that  attachment. 

"  Among  all  devotees,  he  who  being  full  of  faith 
worships  me,  with  his  inmost  self  intent  on  me,  is 
esteemed  by  me  to  be  the  most  devoted."  "  Even 
if  a  very  ill-conducted  man  worships  me,  not  worship- 
ping any  one  else,  he  must  certainly  be  deemed  to  be 
good,  for  he  has  well  resolved."  "  Place  your  mind 
on  me,  become  my  devotee,  my  worshipper;  reverence 
me,  and  thus  making  me  your  highest  goal,  and 
devoting  yourself  to  abstraction,  you  will  certainly 
come  to  me."  "  On  me  place  your  mind,  become  my 
devotee,  sacrifice  to  me,  reverence  me,  you  will  cer- 


182  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

tainly  come  to  me.  I  declare  to  you  truly,  you  are 
dear  to  me.  I  will  release  you  from  all  sins.  Be  not 
grieved."  "  No  one  amongst  men  is  superior  to  him 
in  doing  what  is  dear  to  me." 

It  is  probable  that  the  Bhagavad  Gita  was  the  first 
to  introduce  this  doctrine  of  faith.  It  is,  of  course,  a 
doctrine  possible  only  in  connection  with  a  personal 
God,  and  was  doubtless  introduced  through  the  new 
cult  of  Krishna-olatry.  It  is  foreign  to  Vedantism, 
whose  God  is  the  Impersonal  and  the  Ineffable  One ; 
foreign  also  to  the  Sankya  school,  where  God  is 
neither  known  nor  needed.  It  is  essentially  a  new 
teaching,  and  is  a  peculiar  feature  of  the  worship  of 
the  incarnations  of  Vishnu. 

But,  introduced  by  this  Song  of  the  Adorable  One, 
it  has  been  incorporated  into  the  Hindu  religion,  and 
figures  now  as  one  of  the  most  powerful  motives  of 
that  faith.  And  this  new  doctrine  brings  the  Hindu 
religion  into  warmer  relationship  to  Christianity  than 
at  any  other  point.  Sir  Monier  Williams  truly  claims 
that  Hinduism,  in  no  other  teaching,  so  closely 
approaches  Christianity  as  in  the  doctrine  of  faith. 

But,  like  all  other  teachings  of  Hinduism,  this 
doctrine  also  has  been  considerably  distorted  in  the 
process  of  appropriation ;  so  that  "  faith  "  in  the  wor- 


THE  BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU  BIBLE        183 

ship  of  Vishnu's  incarnations,  to-day,  is  more  potential 
as  an  act  than  is  "  faith  "  in  Christianity.  For,  in 
Hinduism,  it  matters  not  on  what  god  or  ritual  the 
Bhakthan  places  his  faith,  it  has  power  to  redeem  him 
from  all  troubles. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  Bhakti  is  perhaps  the 
most  distinctive  and  mighty  influence  in  Vaishnavism, 
if  not  in  all  Hinduism,  at  the  present  time. 

(4)  Little  is  said  in  Hinduism  with  a  view  to 
inculcate  and  to  reveal  the  efficiency  of  altruism, 
or  the  love  of  man  for  man.  In  the  Bhagavad  Gita 
hardly  any  reference  is  made  to  this  which  is  so 
dominant  a  note  in  the  Christian  faith.  Krishna 
does  remark  that  one  should  have  "  regard  also  to 
keeping  people  to  their  duties,"  in  performing  action. 
"  Whatever  a  great  man  does,  that  other  men  also 
do ;  .  .  .  wise  men  should  not  shake  the  convictions 
of  the  ignorant  who  are  attached  to  action,  but  act- 
ing with  devotion  should  make  them  apply  them- 
selves to  all  action."  "  He  who  identifies  himself 
with  every  being  is  not  tainted,  though  he  performs 
actions."  "  The  sages  who  are  intent  on  the  wel- 
fare of  all  the  beings  obtain  the  Brahmic  bliss." 

This  certainly  is  neither  very  clear,  nor  at  all 
adequate,  as  the  inculcation  of  the  most  fundamental 


1 84  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

of  all  duties,  the  love  of  our  fellow-men  and  the  sac- 
rifice of  self  in  the  interest  of  common  humanity. 
The  Vedantin  claims  that  the  unity  of  all  being, 
as  taught  by  him,  is  a  strong  injunction  upon  him 
to  love  all  the  parts  of  that  unity.  But  the  Bhaga- 
vad  Gita  does  not  teach  clearly  even  this  Vedantic 
doctrine.  Selfishness  is  too  much  stamped  upon 
the  Hindu  faith.  It  is  too  exclusively  an  indi- 
vidualistic religion.  It  is  every  one  for  himself  in 
the  great  struggle  of  man  for  redemption.  It  pre- 
eminently tends  to  cultivate  in  man  both  pride  in 
his  own  achievement  and  an  exclusively  selfish  devo- 
tion to  the  consummation  of  his  own  redemption. 

4.  In  the  Bhagavad  Gita  little  is  said  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  salvation  which  is  to  be  achieved  by  the 
devotee  of  Krishna.  Indeed,  the  nature  of  this  con- 
summation is  left  very  much  in  mystery.  We  are 
told  that  Krishna's  worshipper  will  come  to  him. 
"  He  who,  with  the  highest  devotion  to  me,  will 
proclaim  this  supreme  mystery  among  my  devotees 
will  come  to  me  freed  from  all  doubts."  Again  we 
are  taught  that  such  a  devotee,  "  understanding  me, 
truly  enters  into  my  essence."  This  carries  the 
definite  and  universal  thought  of  Hinduism,  that 
man  will  be  absorbed  in  the  Deity.  In  another 


THE   BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU  BIBLE       185 

place  we  are  told  that  the  worshipper  "  who  is 
purified  by  the  penance  of  knowledge  has  come  into 
my  essence." 

This  is  the  eschatology  of  all  Hindu  Shastras. 
The  peculiar  teaching  of  the  Bhagavad  Gita  con- 
cerning action  and  its  emphasis  upon  a  strenuous 
life  in  this  world  would  have  led  us  to  expect  the 
teaching  of  a  future  of  some  kind  of  activity.  Instead 
of  that,  it  falls  back  upon  the  old  and  hackneyed 
pantheistic  idea,  that  the  human  soul,  being  ulti- 
mately divested  of  its  human  bodies,  both  gross 
and  fine,  passes  on  in  its  nakedness  into  oneness 
with  the  Absolute,  and  thus  loses  all  the  faculties 
which,  so  far  as  we  know,  constitute  its  greatness, 
power,  and  glory.  In  this  condition  of  absorption 
the  human  soul  is  not  only  deprived  of  its  separate 
existence,  but  also  of  all  self-knowledge,  which  is 
the  true  basis  of  personality. 

As  to  the  process  of  this  salvation  we  are  here 
taught,  as  in  all  Hindu  writing,  that  it  is  attained 
through  metempsychosis,  or  reincarnation.  The  hu- 
man soul,  like  the  divine,  in  Brahmanism,  passes 
through  many  incarnations  (some  writers  say 
8,400,000)  before  it  receives  the  crown  of  perfection, 
or  of  absorption.  Krishna  says :  "  As  a  man,  cast- 


1 86  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

ing  off  old  clothes,  puts  on  others  and  new  ones,  so 
the  embodied  self,  casting  off  old  bodies,  goes  to 
others  and  new  ones."  "  I  have  passed  through 
many  births,  O  Arjuna,  and  you,  also,"  says  Krishna ; 
"  I  know  them  all,  but  you,  O  terror  of  your  foes !  do 
not  know  them." 

This  devious  and  tedious  path  of  reincarnation  is 
the  one  over  which  every  soul  must  pass.  And 
between  every  incarnation  and  that  which  follows, 
the  soul,  clothed  upon  with  a  subtle  body,  passes 
through  many  heavens  and  hells  in  order  to  eat 
the  fruits  of  its  past  actions.  And  there  is  a  rem- 
nant of  these  fruits  left  which  necessitates  the  return 
to  a  new  body  and  a  new  human  existence. 

These  upper  and  nether  regions  through  which 
the  soul  passes  and  settles  its  accounts  with  the 
past,  are  not  in  any  sense  permanent.  Concerning 
this,  the  Bhagavad  Gita  says  that  men,  "  reaching 
the  holy  world  of  the  Lord  of  Gods,  they  enjoy  in 
the  celestial  regions  the  celestial  pleasures  of  the 
gods.  And  having  enjoyed  that  great  heavenly 
world,  they  enter  the  mortal  world  when  their  merit 
is  exhausted."  After,  perhaps,  millions  of  these  hu- 
man incarnations  (and,  indeed,  the  incarnation  may 
be  of  lower  animal  and  of  vegetable),  the  self  will 


THE   BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE   HINDU  BIBLE       187 

gradually  be  perfected,  they  say,  and  will  pass  on 
into  the  calm  essence  of  the  supreme  Soul,  as  a 
drop  of  water  descends  in  rain  and  blends  again 
with  the  ocean.  I  see  absolutely  no  reason  why 
this  interminable  process  of  metempsychosis  should 
lead  to  the  perfection  of  the  soul  rather  than  to  its 
complete  demoralization.  Indeed,  there  is  nothing 
ethical  at  all  in  the  character  of  these  reincarnations, 
so  far  as  they  are  described  by  Hindu  writers. 

Ill 

This,  then,  is  the  "  Divine  Lay "  of  the  Hindu 
religion,  the  book  most  cherished  and  most  highly 
extolled  by  more  than  two  hundred  and  thirty  million 
Hindus. 

We  are,  first  of  all,  impressed  by  the  many  con- 
tradictions which  disfigure  the  book.  Hardly  a 
page  is  free  from  conflicting  doctrines  and  methods 
of  life.  It  could  not  be  otherwise  in  any  effort  to 
harmonize  the  mutually  contradictory  teachings  of 
the  conflicting  schools  of  religious  thought  and  prac- 
tice in  this  complicated  faith. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  see  in  this  Song  an  honest 
and  an  able  attempt  to  bring  the  many  tenets  of 
that  faith  into  a  consistent  whole.  And  we  cannot 


i88  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

help  feeling  that,  while  the  view  of  God  and  man 
here  presented,  and  the  ways  of  salvation  here  enun- 
ciated, are  not  satisfactory,  yet  we  find  scattered 
through  its  pages  gems  of  thought  and  beauties  of 
religious  conceptions  and  instruction  which  are 
beyond  cavil,  and  which  to-day  seem  to  satisfy  many 
millions  of  our  fellow-men. 

But,  at  the  close  of  a  careful  perusal  of  the  book, 
one  feels  that  it  is  radically  unsatisfying. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  wanting  in  any  power  for 
life.  In  order  to  feel  this,  one  has  only  to  compare  it, 
for  a  moment,  with  the  Gospels  of  Christianity.  We 
find  here  philosophical  disquisitions  on  the  Divine 
Being  which  few  men  can  understand  and  none  can 
hope  to  harmonize.  In  the  Gospels,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  see  presented  a  scheme  of  life  which,  at  the 
same  time,  satisfies  the  highest  philosophy  and  is  per- 
fectly intelligible  to  the  most  simple-minded.  Here  a 
bewildering  number  of  mutually  contradictory  ways  of 
life  are  urged  upon  us,  not  one  of  which  can  appeal  in 
fulness  and  power  to  the  common  man.  There  do  we 
find  one  clear  way  of  salvation  —  the  way  of  faith  in 
Christ ;  and  in  order  to  walk  in  that  way  the  power  of 
the  Divine  Spirit  is  promised  to  every  one,  even  to 
the  humblest  soul  and  to  the  greatest  sinner,  that  he 


THE   BHAGAVAD   GITA  —  THE    HINDU   BIBLE        189 

might  accept  the  Christ  and  live  in  and  through  Him 
a  holy  and  a  righteous  life. 

Above  all,  we  have  here  represented  an  incarnation 
the  records  of  whose  doings,  in  the  sacred  writings  of 
the  Hindus,  shock  us  by  their  immorality  and  disgust 
us  by  their  coarseness.  And  yet  he  arrogates  to  him- 
self the  nature  and  the  functions,  as  he  makes  upon  us 
the  demands,  of  the  supreme  Deity.  There,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  witness  the  spectacle  of  the  Christ 
who  so  lived  the  divine  life,  and  whose  immaculate 
holiness  is  so  overwhelming,  that  His  claim  to  be  one 
with  the  Godhead  brings  no  shock  or  sense  of  incon- 
gruity to  any  one  to-day.  He  has  so  impressed  men 
of  all  generations  that  untold  millions,  in  all  lands, 
have  felt  no  hesitation  in  believing  Him  when  He 
says,  "  He  that  hath  seen  me  hath  seen  the  Father." 
Here  do  we  indeed  find  the  supreme  contrast  between 
the  manual  of  Hindu  faith  and  the  Gospels  of  Christi- 
anity; and  it  is  a  contrast  at  the  most  vital  point  of 
religion. 


CHAPTER   VII 

POPULAR    HINDUISM 

IN  the  last  chapter  we  dwelt  upon  what  may  be 
called  the  Higher  Hinduism — that  system  of  thought 
and  religious  exercise  which  engages  the  attention, 
attracts  the  thought,  and  invites  the  devotion  of  the 
thinking  classes  of  the  Hindu  fold.  The  Bhagavad 
Gita  is  only  one  of  many  writings  which  seriously  pre- 
sent to  the  thoughtful  Hindu  some  of  the  higher  con- 
ceptions and  deepest  yearnings  of  the  soul.  Of  all 
the  faiths  of  the  "  Far  East "  none  dwells  so  much 
upon  these  profound  religious  realities,  or  engages  in 
such  lofty  flights  of  spiritual  aspiration,  as  does  this 
religion  of  the  Brahmans.  And  no  one  can  study 
these  products  of  the  greatest  minds  and  most  sensi- 
tive religious  souls  of  India  without  entertaining  a 
great  and  growing  admiration  for  them. 

But  it  is  well  to  remember  these  are  not  all  of 
Hindu  literature ;  nor  do  they  represent  the  current 

thought  or  the  general  religious  life  of  the  people. 

190 


POPULAR  HINDUISM  193 

They  indeed  reveal  the  highest  and  the  best  that 
has  ever  come  to  light  in  the  thought  and  spiritual 
culture  of  this  people.  For  that  reason,  the  Bhagavad 
Gita  is  worthy  of  the  name  we  gave  it  —  the  Hindu 
bible. 

In  view  of  all  these  things,  who  would  say  that  God 
did  not  visit  this  people,  or  left  Himself  without  wit- 
ness among  them  ?  While  He  was  leading  the  He- 
brews in  the  time  of  Moses,  He  was  also  stirring  this 
people  through  its  old  rishis,  or  sages.  While  He 
was  rebuking  the  degenerate  Jewish  people  through 
their  later  prophets,  He  was  raising  and  inspiring  the 
great  prophet  of  India,  the  Buddha,  to  protest  against 
a  debased  Brahmanism. 

But  let  it  not  be  supposed  that  this  literature  of 
"  Higher  Hinduism  "  is,  in  any  sense,  popular  in  In- 
dia. Those  religious  books  which  engage  the  mind 
of  the  masses  are  of  a  very  different  class.  They  are 
the  wild  legends  of  the  Puranas,  and  inane  dialogues 
and  lying  incantations  of  the  Tantras  —  two  classes  of 
works  which  are  both  the  most  popular  and  are  lowest 
in  the  range  of  their  ideas  and  most  demoralizing  in 
the  cults  which  they  present. 

These  books  were  ostensibly  written  for  the  com- 
mon people  and  for  women.  And  the  common  peo- 


i94  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

pie  delight  in  them  and  are  intoxicated  by  their 
religious  exaggerations  and  excesses. 

Thus  the  faith  of  the  people,  as  a  whole,  is  far 
removed,  in  its  grovelling  thought,  its  idolatrous 
practices,  and  its  thousand-headed  ritual,  from  the 
teaching  of  Higher  Hinduism. 

Above  all,  we  must  remember  that  the  Hinduism  of 
to-day  is  not  the  Brahmanism  of  thirty  centuries  ago. 
It  has  been  the  passion  of  that  faith,  from  the  begin- 
ning, to  absorb  all  cults  and  faiths  that  have  come 
into  contact  with  it.  Hinduism  is  an  amorphous 
thing;  it  has  been  compared  to  a  many-coloured  and 
many-fibred  cloth,  in  which  are  mixed  together  Brah- 
manism, Buddhism,  Demonolatry,  and  Christianity. 
And  all  these,  utterly  regardless  of  the  many  con- 
tradictions which  they  bring  together,  form  modern 
Hinduism. 

This  is  true  also  of  the  gods  of  India.  The  earliest 
of  the  Vedic  gods  had  elements  of  nobility  in  them. 
The  most  universally  recognized  of  their  divinities  in 
primitive  times,  Varuna,  is  free  from  the  vain  passions 
and  moral  obliquities  of  more  recent  gods.  Indeed, 
as  one  follows  the  course  of  time  and  the  consequent 
multiplication  of  deities  in  India,  one  sees  in  their 
pantheon  a  steady  deterioration  of  character,  until  we 


POPULAR  HINDUISM  195 

come  to  the  most  popular  of  modern  Hindu  deities, 
Krishna  and  Kali,  the  one  well-called  "the  incarna- 
tion of  lust,"  and  the  other  "the  goddess  of  blood." 
One  is  the  deification  of  human  passion,  while  the 
other  is  an  apotheosis  of  brute  force.  And  yet  the 
cults  of  those  two  deities  have  attained,  at  the  present 
time,  the  maximum  of  popularity  throughout  the  land. 

The  same  fact  is  manifest  in  connection  with  the 
customs  of  the  people.  In  early  Vedic  times,  hardly 
one  of  those  institutions  which  now  so  disfigure  this 
religion  existed  among  the  people.  Idolatry,  the 
caste  system,  and  the  many  forms  of  degradation  of 
women  are  of  later  growth.  Never,  in  all  the  history 
of  the  country,  did  they  exist  and  flourish  as  they  do 
at  the  present  time. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that,  while  the  religion  of  the 
Brahmans  in  its  earliest,  primitive  stage  was  merely 
an  ethnic  faith  and  largely  the  echo  of  the  spiritual 
yearning  of  the  human  soul,  its  development  has 
neither  added  to  its  power  nor  broadened  its  horizon. 
On  the  contrary,  it  grows  weaker  and  has,  age  after 
age,  added  superstition  to  superstition,  until  it  has 
reached  its  maximum  of  error  and  of  evil  at  the 
present  time. 

It  is  wise  neither  to  ignore  nor  to  underestimate  the 


196  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

best  that  is  in  a  faith ;  nor  is  it  fair  to  shut  one's  eyes 
to  its  achievement  as  revealed  in  the  life  of  the  com- 
mon people. 

Indeed,  the  religious  life  of  the  masses  is  the  truest 
index  of  the  real  value  of  a  religion,  if  it  has  wrought 
upon  them  many  centuries,  as  Hinduism  has,  in  this 
land. 

I 

In  the  West  the  national  evolutionist  says  to  us, 
"  Let  the  people  of  India  alone,  that  they  may  evolve 
their  own  faith.  It  is  not  by  cataclysmic  change,  but 
by  growth,  that  they  will  ultimately  find  their  true 
redemption."  Others,  who  have  listened  perhaps  to 
the  pleasing  words  of  a  clever,  yellow-robed  Hindu 
Swami,  ask  the  question,  "  Why  should  we  spend  our 
money  in  sending  "the  Gospel  to  these  wonderfully 
bright  people  of  the  East ;  are  they  not  able  to  take 
care  of  themselves;  and  is  not  their  faith  adequate 
to  their  needs  ?  " 

To  this  we  simply  say :  "  Come  with  us  to  India  and 
see  for  yourselves.  Live,  as  some  of  us  have,  for  a 
third  of  a  century  in  this  land,  and  see,  hear,  feel,  and 
understand  what  this  Hinduism  is.  And,  having  un- 
derstood the  situation,  ask  yourselves  whether  this 
ancestral  faith  of  India  has  in  itself  real  saving  power 


POPULAR  HINDUISM  197 

and  redeeming  efficacy  for  any  one.  I  maintain  that, 
to  know  Hinduism,  is  to  feel  a  deep  sympathy  with  the 
people  who  have  inherited  it  as  their  faith,  and  to 
desire  to  bring  to  them  the  Gospel  of  life  and  of 
salvation  in  Christ  Jesus.  The  people  of  India  are, 
perhaps,  the  most  religious  upon  earth.  In  this  respect 
they  are  very  unlike  the  Japanese  and  Chinese,  who 
are  worldly,  prosaic,  practical.  Hindus  are  poetic, 
other-worldly,  and  spiritually  minded.  They  have  a 
keen  instinct  for  things  of  the  spirit.  They  are,  also, 
very  unlike  the  people  of  the  West.  Among  West- 
erners, religion  is  largely  an  incident  in  life.  It  has 
for  them  a  separate  department,  a  small  corner,  in  the 
life.  In  the  East,  on  the  other  hand,  religion  enters 
into  every  detail  of  life.  There  is  hardly  a  depart- 
ment or  an  interest  in  life  which  is  not  subsidized  by 
faith  and  which  has  not  to  be  conducted  religiously. 

Moreover,  the  people  of  India  thought  out  and  elab- 
orated most  profound  systems  of  theosophic  thought  in 
the  far,  remote  past.  When  our  ancestors  were  in  the 
depths  of  savagery,  Indian  sages  were  indulging  in 
metaphysical  disquisitions  which  are  even  to-day  the 
admiration  of  western  sages.  And  there  were  many 
among  those  ancient  Hindu  rishis  whose  self-propelled 
flight  toward  God  and  divine  things,  and  whose  spir- 


198  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

itual  aspirations  and  yearnings  were  so  beautiful  that 
we  can  but  speak  with  profound  respect  and  entertain 
the  highest  admiration  of  them.  Religion  is  not 
merely  a  philosophy,  or  even  an  aspiration;  it  is 
something  vastly  more  than  this. 

The  Hindu  Swami  will  visit  the  West  and  discourse 
sweetly,  in  persuasive  English,  upon  Hindu  philosophy. 
But  he  will  not  practise  his  religious  rites  or  reveal  his 
idolatrous  habits  and  his  bondage  of  caste  to  those 
western  people  who  admire  him.  These  things  would 
at  once  create  a  revulsion  of  feeling  against  him  and 
his  philosophy.  And  yet  these  are  much  more  an 
essential  part  of  his  faith  than  all  his  moral  platitudes 
and  eloquent  disquisitions. 

And  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  this  same  Swami, 
in  the  very  act  of  crossing  the  oceans  to  visit  the  West, 
violates  one  of  the  most  prominent  commands  of  his 

faith. 

II 

What,  then,  is  Popular  Hinduism? 

I  shall  endeavour  to  analyze  it  and  present  some  of 
its  outstanding  features,  such  as  'are  witnessed  all  over 
the  land. 

i.  That  which  obtrudes  itself  upon  all  sides  and 
which  is,  perhaps,  its  most  determining  factor  is  its 


THE   HOME   LIFE  OF  HINDUS  265 

that  he  go  and  ask  her  to  return,  apologizing  for  the 
troubles  that  she  has  endured.  And  so  the  situation 
is  improved,  for  a  while,  until  another  visit  to  her 
parents  becomes  imperative.  It  is  natural  enough 
that  the  mother-in-law  should  thus  deal  harshly  with 
her  daughter-in-law ;  for  is  it  not  her  revenge  for  the 
similar  treatment  which  she  received  many  years  ago 
as  daughter-in-law?  The  real  attitude  of  the  Hindu 
toward  his  wife  is  doubtless  more  cordial  than  it  ap- 
pears to  a  Westerner.  He  seems  to  delight  in  reveal- 
ing an  indifference  to  her  feelings  and  a  contempt  for 
her  position.  In  the  household,  she  is  not  permitted 
to  eat  with  him ;  she  must  wait  upon  his  lordship  and 
take  the  leavings  of  his  meal.  Upon  a  journey,  it 
would  be  gross  impropriety  for  her  to  walk  by  his 
side.  Etiquette  demands  that  she  walk  behind  him 
at  a  respectable  distance  of,  say,  ten  paces. 

The  love  of  jewellery  is  a  marked  passion  with  the 
women  of  India.  Millions  of  money  are  expended 
every  year  in  the  manufacture  of  female  adorn- 
ments. And  in  this  work  there  are  more  than  four 
hundred  thousand  goldsmiths  constantly  employed. 
The  wealth  of  a  family,  especially  among  the  middle 
classes,  is  largely  measured  by  the  amount  of  jew- 
ellery which  the  women  of  the  household  possess. 


200  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

endure  this  manifestation  of  human  folly,  what  can 
we  not  say  in  these  days,  when,  in  addition  to  the 
acknowledged  host  of  well-known  Hindu  deities, 
every  family  has  its  god,  and  every  hamlet  its  pro- 
tecting demons ;  and  when  trees,  rivers,  mountains, 
and  a  thousand  other  objects  represent  to  the  popular 
mind  separate  godlets  ?  One  can  well  say  that  India 
has  gone  mad  in  its  passion  for  populating  the  world 
with  gods. 

3.  Moreover,  this  pantheon  has  been  incarnated. 
It  has  descended  into  a  wild  and  hideous  idolatry. 
There  is  no  other  land  on  earth  where  idolatry  is  so 
rampant  as  it  is  in  India.  Images  are  found  every- 
where. If  the  gods  are  numberless,  how  much  more 
the  idols  which  represent  them,  and  which  are  found 
in  every  hamlet  and  house  and  upon  roadsides ! 

In  addition  to  those  idols  which  are  made  for  regu- 
lar and  permanent  worship,  there  are  myriad  others 
which  are  made  of  clay  and  other  perishable  sub- 
stances, to  be  used  for  the  time  only,  and  then  to  be 
thrown  into  the  river  or  to  be  washed  away  by  the 
rain. 

And  what  hideous  objects  these  idols  of  India  are ! 
The  images  of  the  gods  of  the  ancient  Greeks  were 
beautiful,  and  one  feels  sometimes  almost  inclined  to 


POPULAR   HINDUISM  201 

excuse  an  image-worship  where  ignorance  weds  art 
to  religion  and  combines  beauty  with  devotion. 

But  there  is  no  such  excuse  for  the  idolatry  of 
India.  In  all  my  travels  through  this  great  land  I 
have  hardly  seen  an  image,  or  an  idol,  which  is  what 
may  be  called  an  artistically  beautiful  object.  On 
the  other  hand,  many  of  them  are  peculiarly  gross 
and  revolting  in  appearance.  The  most  universally 
worshipped  god  in  all  India  is  Ganesh.  His  idols 
are  found  all  over  the  land,  not  only  in  temples  and 
shrines,  but  on  roadsides,  and  in  all  places  where 
people  assemble.  And  this  Ganesh,  the  son  of  Siva, 
is  represented  by  the  grossest  and  most  hideous  idol. 
This  "  pot-bellied  god  "  has  his  body  crowned  with  an 
elephant  head ! 

Of  course,  Hindu  taste  cannot  be  judged  by  western 
standards.  One  cannot  fail  to  recognize  this  fact  in 
trying  to  judge  types  of  human  beauty  in  this  land. 
But  even  Hindu  types  of  beauty  are  not  at  all  real- 
ized in  their  idols.  It  would  often  seem  as  if  that 
which  was  most  revolting  in  appearance  is  that  which 
appeals  most  strongly  to  the  Hindu,  as  an  outward 
expression  of  the  divine.  In  any  case,  it  is  true  that 
the  idolatry  of  India  is  farthest  removed  from  the 
chaste,  the  beautiful,  and  the  elevating. 


268  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

As  one  sees  a  village  community  make  all  possible 
uses  of  the  village  pond,  he  wonders  why  the  whole 
village  has  not  been  swept  away  by  disease.  They 
are  saved  from  their  folly,  doubtless,  by  the  piercing, 
cleansing  rays  of  the  tropical  sun. 

Hindu  clothing  is  both  beautiful  and  admirably 
suited  to  the  tropical  climate.  The  one  cloth  of  the 
Hindu  woman,  which  she  so  deftly  winds  around  her 
body,  and  which  is  usually  of  bright  colours,  is  per- 
haps the  most  exquisitely  beautiful  garment  worn  by 
any  people.  And  this  is  altogether  adequate  to  her 
needs.  Unfortunately,  western  habits  are  now  com- 
ing into  vogue,  and,  in  the  case  of  men  and  women 
alike,  the  clothing  of  the  West  is  partially  supplanting 
that  of  the  East.  Nothing  could  be  more  unfortunate, 
from  the  standpoint  of  health,  beauty,  and  economy. 

The  culinary  arrangements  and  the  cuisine  of  the 
Hindu  home  are  somewhat  elaborate.  Well-to-do 
Hindus,  notwithstanding  many  caste  restrictions,  are 
somewhat  epicurean  in  their  tastes,  and  live  well.  As 
we  have  seen  in  the  chapter  on  Caste,  there  are  many 
limitations  placed  upon  the  selection  of  food,  the 
method  of  its  preparation,  and  of  eating.  Meat  is 
entirely  banned  by  the  highest  castes.  None  will 
touch  the  meat  of  the  bovine  kind,  save  the  outcast 


Two  HINDU  IDOLS,  SOUTH  INDIA 


THE   HOME   LIFE  OF  HINDUS  269 

Pariah.  All  are  very  particular  in  seeking  seclusion 
for  their  meals.  This  is  perhaps  the  reason  why  the 
Hindu  home  is,  generally  speaking,  so  much  more 
secluded  than  that  of  other  people.  Hindus  believe 
that  fingers  were  made  before  knives,  forks,  and 
spoons.  Consequently  they  eat  their  food  entirely 
with  their  fingers.  It  seems  offensive  enough  to 
Westerners.  It  has  often  taken  away  the  writer's 
appetite  as  he  has  feasted  with  them,  to  have  the 
cook  dole  out  his  rice  to  him  with  his  bare  hands ! 
They  eat  entirely  with  their  right  hand,  and  never 
touch  the  food  with  the  left,  reserving  that  hand  for 
baser  purposes. 

In  wealthy  families,  household  duties  are  performed 
by  many  servants.  It  is  amusing  to  see  how  many 
servants  are  required  in  India  to  perform  the  ordinary 
functions  of  one  able-bodied  servant  in  the  West. 
The  services  which  a  Hindu  will  demand  from  his 
menials  are  far  greater  than  those  of  a  healthy  West- 
erner. His  languid  nature  and  general  effeminacy 
make  him  entirely  dependent  upon  his  servant  for 
most  of  the  activities  and  amenities  of  life.  Recently 
the  writer  heard  a  Hindu  companion  in  a  railway  car 
call  his  servant  at  night  from  an  adjoining  car  to  come 
and  turn  the  shade  over  the  compartment  lamp  that 


206  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

festival;  births,  marriages,  deaths,  and  similar  occur- 
rences are,  of  course,  as  common  and  frequent  in 
our  temples  as  in  our  homes.  Gentlemen,  can  any 
amount  of  esoteric  whitewashing  justify  these  dis- 
graceful and  fairly  incredible  practices?  Then  there 
are  the  deva  dasies,  our  'vestal  virgins,'  of  whom 
even  small  and  poor  temples  have  one  or  two  to 
boast.  They  are  the  recognized  prostitutes  of  the 
country,  and  many  sociologists  are  of  opinion  that 
no  '  civilized '  human  society  can  completely  get  rid 
of  such  a  class.  Is  that  any  reason  why  we  should 
associate  them  with  our  religion  and  tempt  the  devil 
himself  with  their  presence  in  our  holiest  places  and 
shrines  ? " 

4.  Another  marked  feature  of  modern  Hinduism 
is  its  devil-worship.  This  is  peculiarly  manifest  in 
South  India.  In  the  Madras  Presidency,  whose 
fifty  million  population  is  mostly  Dravidian,  nine- 
tenths  of  the  people  follow  the  faith  of  their  ances- 
tors, which  is  Demonolatry. 

When  Brahmanism  came  to  South  India,  many 
centuries  ago,  it  found  intrenched  among  the  people, 
everywhere  and  universally,  this  ancient  cult.  The 
Brahmans,  recognizing  this,  did  what  they  have  al- 
ways done ;  they  said  to  the  people :  "  We  have 


POPULAR   HINDUISM  207 

not  come  to  destroy  your  religion ;  we  will  take 
your  demons  and  demonesses,  marry  them  to  our 
gods,  and  give  them  shrines  and  worship  in  our  tem- 
ples. Come  with  them  and  be  a  part  of  our  reli- 
gion. We  will  give  to  you  the  privileges,  and  confer 
upon  you  the  dignity  and  blessing,  of  our  great  reli- 
gion." The  people  were  impressed  by  this  offer, 
accepted  the  situation,  and  were  absorbed,  with  their 
religion,  into  the  Brahmanical  faith.  From  that 
time  forward  they  have  been  recognized  as  Hindus, 
and  have,  after  a  fashion,  been  loyal  members  of 
that  faith. 

But  let  it  not  be  supposed  that,  by  becoming 
Hindus,  they  have  deserted  their  ancestral  religion, 
and  have  ceased  to  be  devil-worshippers.  Far  from  it. 
Hinduism  proper  is  to  them  a  mere  plaything,  or  a 
festival  pastime.  On  special  Hindu  holidays,  and 
perhaps  on  occasions  of  pilgrimage,  they  will  visit 
these  Hindu  temples  and  bring  their  offering  to  the 
deities  of  Brahmanism.  But  their  chief  concern  and 
their  daily  religious  occupation  is  found  in  the  appeas- 
ing of  the  many  devils  whose  abode  is  supposed  to  be 
in  their  countless  village  shrines  and  under  well-known 
trees  in  their  hamlets.  They  have  not  abated  one  jot 
of  their  belief  in  the  supremacy  of  these  devils  in  their 


272  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

lives.  To  remove  this  serious  evil,  government  is  put- 
ting forth  strenuous  efforts  to  bring  intelligent  relief 
to  the  mothers  of  India. 

The  entrance  of  death  into  a  Hindu  family  brings, 
as  elsewhere,  inexpressible  sorrow.  The  women  of 
the  family  resign  themselves  to  their  grief,  which  is 
expressed  by  loud  wailings,  with  beating  of  their 
breast  and  tearing  their  dishevelled  hair.  While  pro- 
fessional wailers  are  rare,  nevertheless  friends  and 
relatives  congregate  and  add  volume  to  the  dirge  of 
sorrow.  The  leading  women  mourners  will  often  ex- 
press in  weird  chant  and  appropriate  words  their 
praises  of  the  virtues  and  the  beauties  of  the  departed 
ones.  The  men  of  the  household  mourn  in  silence,  as 
it  is  not  fitting  that  the  man  should  audibly  express 
his  sorrow  in  public. 

Hindus  make  immediate  arrangements  for  burning 
or  burial  as  soon  as  death  has  occurred;  so  that, 
usually,  the  funeral  services  are  over  within  twelve  or 
eighteen  hours  after  death.  This  is  desirable,  because 
of  the  Hindu  custom  of  fasting  so  long  as  a  corpse 
remains  in  the  house ;  and  is  also  necessary  because 
of  the  speedy  decomposition  of  the  body  in  the  tropics. 
It  is  also  made  possible  by  the  fact  that  Hindus  do 
not  use  coffins. 


THE   HOME   LIFE  OF  HINDUS  273 

It  is  the  custom  of  most  of  the  higher-caste  Hindus 
to  cremate  their  dead ;  while  many  of  the  lowest 
castes  and  outcasts  resort  to  burial.  Cremation  would 
doubtless  be  the  more  sanitary  method,  if  the  fire  were 
not  so  inadequate  in  many  instances.  The  Hindu 
burning-ground  is  a  place  of  ghastly  and  disgusting 
interest. 

Funeral  ceremonies  do  not  terminate  with  the  burn- 
ing or  with  the  burial  of  the  body  in  Hinduism.  The 
ritual  connected  with  the  dead,  which  is  called 
Shradda,  is,  among  the  higher  classes,  a  most  elabo- 
rate and  complicated  one,  and  lasts,  with  intermis- 
sions, for  a  year.  These  are  conducted  with  much 
effort  by,  and  at  great  expense  to,  the  oldest  son  of  the 
family.  And  a  great  significance  is  attached  to  their 
rigid  performance.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  part  of 
the  great  ancestral  worship  of  the  East. 

The  function  of  this  ceremony  is  also  kindred  to 
that  of  Roman  Catholicism,  which,  through  prayer  and 
offerings,  seeks  the  release  of  souls  from  Purgatory. 
By  this  ritual,  which  involves  also  gifts  to  Brahmans 
and  priests,  the  son  makes  more  easy  the  pathway  of 
the  departed  parent  through  the  shades  into  the  realms 
beyond,  and  relieves  the  departed  soul  of  its  encum- 
brances and  facilitates  its  progress  toward  bliss.  By 

T 


aio  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

can  find  in  India,  as  in  no  other  land,  religion  of  all 
forms  and  in  all  grades  of  development, — from  the 
lowest  step  of  animism  to  the  most  spiritual  and  ab- 
struse pantheism.  I  myself  have  seen,  within  the 
area  of  one  acre  of  land  in  South  India,  the  instru- 
ments of  these  varied  forms  of  worship,  from  a  greasy, 
round  stone,  before  which  the  lowest  classes  prostrated 
themselves,  to  an  image  of  one  of  the  supreme  gods  of 
Hinduism.  There  is  not  a  phase  of  worship,  however 
high  or  mystic,  or  however  mean  or  degraded,  which 
has  not  its  devotees  in  this  land. 

6.  Modern  Hinduism  is  also  guilty  of  harbouring 
and  fostering  immorality. 

This  is  a  cruel  statement  to  make  concerning  any 
faith.  But  justice  compels  me  to  add  this  as  one  of 
the  characteristics  of  Hinduism.  Some  of  the  most 
revered  and  popular  writings  of  this  religion  are  so  full 
of  obscenity  and  impure  suggestion,  that,  to  publish 
them  in  a  Christian  land,  in  the  English  tongue,  would 
make  the  publisher  liable  to  imprisonment.  When, 
years  ago,  Lord  Dalhousie,  the  Viceroy  of  India, 
enacted  a  law  punishing  obscenity,  the  leaders  of  the 
Hindu  religion  were  so  exercised  by  it  that  the  gov- 
ernment had  to  exempt  religious  writings  of  Hinduism, 
and  emblems  of  that  faith,  from  the  action  of  the  law. 


POPULAR  HINDUISM  211 

There  are  many  religious  books  in  India  to-day  which 
are  classical  in  the  beauty  of  their  language,  but  which 
the  Universities  of  India  decline  to  use  as  text-books 
because  of  their  gross  obscenity. 

Among  the  most  demoralizing  institutions  to  the 
youth  of  India  are  the  temple  cars,  which  are  found  in 
every  village  of  any  consequence  throughout  the  land. 
They  are  erected  at  great  expense,  by  temple  authori- 
ties, are  most  elaborately  carved,  and  are  used  for  the 
conveyance  of  the  gods  through  the  village  streets 
upon  festival  occasions.  There  is  hardly  one  of  these 
cars,  in  South  India  at  any  rate,  which  is  not  dis- 
figured by  grossly  sensual  carvings  such  as  ought  to 
bring  blushing  shame  to  any  decent  and  self-respect- 
ing community.  They  are  open  to  the  public  gaze, 
and  children  of  the  village  play  under  their  shadow, 
and  gaze  daily  upon  their  vile  and  disgusting  sights. 
The  government  would  forbid  the  erection  of  such 
cars  to-morrow,  if  they  had  not  pledged  themselves  not 
to  interfere  with  the  religion  of  the  people ! 

In  the  Vaishnava  cult  of  Hinduism  there  is  at  least 
one  sect,  well  known  throughout  the  land,  whose  wor- 
ship is  loaded  with  impurity,  and  whose  worshippers, 
at  certain  festivals,  specially,  yield  themselves  to  all 
forms  of  sexual  practices  such  as  cannot  be  mentioned. 


CHAPTER   X 

KALI  YUGA  —  INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  l 

MANY  nations,  during  the  period  of  their  infancy 
and  ignorance,  have  given  to  Time  and  its  divisions 
the  power  and  qualities  of  life  and  have  clothed  them 
with  moral  purpose  and  attributes.  Chronos  was  to 
the  Greeks  of  old  the  god  of  time,  in  whose  hands 
were  the  destinies  of  men.  Even  up  to  the  present 
day  not  a  few  ignorant  people  of  Christian  lands  are 
influenced,  to  some  extent,  by  an  inherited  superstition 
about  "  lucky  "  and  "  unlucky  "  days.  But  I  know  of 
no  land  which  is  suffering  more  than  India  from  tra- 
ditional, false,  and  injurious  conceptions  of  chronol- 
ogy. Time  is  here  endowed  with  life  and  enthroned 
among  the  gods.  Sivan  is  "  Maha-Kalan?  the  great 
incarnation  of  Time,  and  the  mighty  destroyer  of  all 
things.  It  is  also  said  that  "Time  is  a  form  of 
Vishnu." 

We  are  told  that  we  are  living  in  Kali  yuga,  and 
that  we  are  subject  to  all  the  evil  which  is  the  per- 
manent characteristic  of  this  iron  age.  I  believe  that 

1  This  chapter  is  a  modified  form  of  a  lecture  delivered  to  Hindus. 

276 


KALI  YUGA— INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  277 

there  are  few  things  in  India  which  so  thoroughly 
influence  the  life,  habits,  and  character  of  the  people 
as  do  their  many  conceptions  about  chronology.  And 
I  am  convinced  that  incalculable  good  would  come  to 
the  country  if  all  these  old  and  exploded  ideas  were 
to  give  way  to  more  rational  ones  —  such  as  are  in 
harmony  with  modern  intelligence  and  civilization. 

Consider,  then,  the  various  aspects  of  the  chronology 
which  all  but  universally  prevails  in  India  in  order  that 
we  may  see  wherein  it  touches  the  life  and  moulds  the 
thought  of  educated  and  uneducated  alike. 

I 

The  Astounding  Length  of  the  Chronological 
System 

In  ancient  Vedic  times  there  obtained  here,  so 
far  as  we  can  see,  much  more  sober  views  of  chro- 
nology than  at  present.  It  was  much  later  that  the 
imagination  of  Hindu  writers  took  full  wing  and 
carried  the  people  into  the  all  but  infinite  reaches  of 
Puranic  chronology.  One  must  wait  for  the  elabora- 
tion of  Vishnu  Purana,  for  instance,  in  order  to  meet 
that  apparent  sobriety  of  mathematical  detail  which  is 
utilized  to  add  credibility  to  the  most  fantastic  time 
system  that  imagination  ever  devised. 


214  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Her  ignorance  has  been  regarded  as  her  safety,  and 
has  been  the  studied  policy  of  Hinduism. 
*  She  has  never  been  regarded  as  worthy  to  know  the 
sacred  books  of  her  own  faith.  It  is  a  sin  in  Hin- 
duism to-day  for  any  man  to  teach  a  woman  the  most 
sacred  truths  of  the  faith.  Her  mind  is  not  a  fit  re- 
ceptacle for  such  truths. 

While  she  has  nothing  to  do  in  choosing  for  her- 
self a  husband,  she  is  bound  in  infancy,  through  holy 
wedlock,  to  a  child  like  herself.  Her  child  husband 
may  die  before  he  attains  manhood,  when  she  becomes 
a  widow.  And,  because  her  stars  are  supposed  to 
have  had  influence  in  his  death,  she  is  treated  with 
cruelty  and  is  regarded  as  the  evil  star  of  the 
home. 

Owing  to  this  evil  custom  of  child  marriage,  there 
are  to-day  twenty-six  million  widows  in  this  land,  of 
whom  four  hundred  thousand  are  under  fifteen  years 
of  age.  It  is  not  simply  that  the  lot  of  these  poor 
women  is  one  of  greatest  hardship  and  contempt; 
they  also  become  the  prey  of  lustful  men  and  fall  into 
grossest  sins.  In  modern  times  the  government  has 
tried  to  lighten  the  burdens  of  womanhood  in  the 
land;  but  the  representatives  of  Hinduism,  and  its 
Aistodians,  all  stand  in  the  way  of  any  helpful  legisla- 


POPULAR  HINDUISM  2 1 5 

tion,  and  are  determined  to  keep  woman  in  servitude 
at  all  hazards. 

8.  The  religious  ascetic  represents  one  of  the  char- 
acteristic features  of  modern  Hinduism. 

Religious  asceticism  has  been  the  ideal  of  the 
Hindu  life  from  time  immemorial.  The  man  who 
has  given  up  all  earthly  pursuits  and  wanders  with 
beggar's  cup  in  hand  from  place  to  place,  making 
pilgrimages  to  the  holy  places  of  India,  or  who  sepa- 
rates himself  entirely  from  men  and  devotes  years  to 
the  solitude  of  the  wilderness  in  the  cultivation  of 
piety,  —  he  it  is  who  is  the  admiration  of  the  whole 
Hindu  community.  And  it  is  for  this  very  reason 
that  so  many  men  in  India  to-day  don  the  yellow  robe 
of  this  profession,  and  make  capital  out  of  this 
sentiment  of  the  people. 

There  are  millions  of  these  religious  mendicants 
who  are  entirely  non-productive  and  live  upon  the 
common  people.  A  few  of  them,  doubtless,  are  sin- 
cere and  are  seeking  after  communion  with  God. 
But  the  vast  majority  are  lazy  and  rotten  to  the  core. 
Their  life  is  known  to  be  utterly  worthless,  and  they 
are  morally  pestiferous  in  their  influence  upon  the 
whole  community.  And  yet  the  people  accept  them 
as  the  highest  types  of  piety  in  the  land.  Even  th% 


28o  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

or  imagination  one  tithe  of  the  years,  divine  or  human, 
which  are  included  in  this  marvellous  chronology. 
A  billion  years  are  but  as  a  day  to  the  Hindu  mind. 

And  if  any  one  is  anxious  to  know  the  exact  place 
at  which  we  have  arrived  in  this  chronological  maze, 
the  same  Purana  informs  us  that  we  are  five  thousand 
years  advanced  in  the  Kali yuga  of  "  Varaha karpa" or 
the  first  day  in  the  second  half  of  Brahma's  life.  And 
thus  we  are  supposed  to  live  not  far  (say  a  few  billion 
years!)  from  the  middle  of  the  Hindu  chronological 
system.  One  may  better  realize  the  length  of  the 
system  if  he  remembers  that  we  have  yet  to  spend 
of  the  present  Kali  yuga  alone  more  than  seventy 
times  the  whole  of  the  old  Christian  chronology  from 
Adam  to  the  present  time !  And  yet,  as  compared 
with  the  whole  system  described  above,  Kali  yuga  is 
less  than  one  day  in  a  thousand  years.  And  that 
largely  measures  the  difference  between  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  West  and  the  same  developed  faculty  in 
the  East! 

It  is  quite  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  prehistoric 
Manus  of  previous  yugas  are  absolutely  imaginary 
creatures,  since  history  can  tell  us  practically  noth- 
ing about  the  head  of  our  race,  even  in  the  present 
Hindu  dispensation.  There  is  not  a  line  of  history 


POPULAR   HINDUISM  217 

religion  of  India,  and  that  is  the  utter  divorce  of  faith 
and  morals.  Hinduism  has  never  recognized  any  con- 
nection, and  least  of  all  any  essential  union,  between 
piety  and  ethics.  As  we  have  seen,  the  most  pious 
men  in  the  land,  according  to  Indian  ideas,  may  be 
the  most  immoral.  This  has  been  one  of  the  fatal 
defects  of  Hinduism  from  the  earliest  times.  Con- 
science has  found  very  small  place  in  this  religion  of 
the  Brahmans. 

9.  Modern  Hinduism,  also,  inculcates  the  spirit  of 
pessimism  among  its  people.     The  Puranas  tell  us, 
and  the  people  universally  believe  it,  that  we  are  now 
living  in  Kali  Yuga,  the  iron  age,  in  which  all  things 
are  evil,  and  in  which  righteousness  is  a  thing  largely 
unknown  to  the  people.     All  the  forces  of  this  age  are 
against  the  good,  and  it  leaves  no  encouragement  to 
any  one  to  try  to  do,  and  to  be,  good.1 

10.  Add  to  this  the  even  more  potent  belief  of  the 
people  in  astrology.     The  planets  and  the  stars,  the 
moon  and  the  nodes  are  living  gods,  they  say,  which 
wield  an  influence  over  the  life  and  destiny  of  human 
beings.     The  astrologer  is  perhaps  the  most  important 
functionary   in    the   social   and   religious   life    of  the 
people.     No  marriage  can  be  performed  unless  the 

1  See  Chapter  X,  Kali  Yuga. 


2i8  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

horoscope  of  the  bride  and  the  bridegroom  harmonize. 
No  social  or  domestic  event  of  importance,  and 
specially  no  religious  ceremony  of  any  consequence, 
can  be  carried  on  save  during  what  are  called  auspi- 
cious days  and  moments.  Astrology  is  the  right  hand 
of  Hinduism,  and  it  has  supreme  authority  in  the 
direction  of  most  of  its  affairs. 

Add  to  this  the  belief  in  omens,  which  enters  very 
largely  into  human  life  and  thought.  A  Hindu  will 
not  start  upon  a  journey  save  on  what  is  astrologically 
an  auspicious  day;  and  if  even  a  crow  crosses  his  path 
from  left  to  right,  after  he  has  begun  his  journey,  it  is 
regarded  as  an  ill  omen,  and  he  will  at  once  return 
home.  He  spends  much  of  his  time  in  watching  such 
omens;  even  an  ass's  bray  carries  a  significance  to 
him.  If  it  is  heard  in  the  east,  his  success  will  be 
delayed;  in  the  southeast,  it  portends  death;  in  the 
south,  it  means  wealth ;  etc.  It  matters  not  how  im- 
portant it  may  be  that  a  man  should  undertake  a 
journey  or  a  task  at  a  certain  time,  he  will  not  do  it  at 
that  time  if  he  finds  it  to  be  inauspicious.  When  the 
new  governor  of  Madras  recently  arrived  at  his  des- 
tination, the  reception  to  be  given  to  him  by  the  Hindus 
had  to  be  postponed  because  it  was  ignorantly  put  at 
an  hour  which  was  Rahu  Kala  —  an  inauspicious  hour! 


POPULAR  HINDUISM  219 

In  a  thousand  similar  ways,  the  Hindu  people  are 
controlled  and  handicapped  by  silly  superstitions  which 
make  life  a  burden  to  them  and  which  rob  them  of 
efficiency  and  sanity. 

This,  then,  is  the  Hinduism  of  the  masses;  and  no 
other  people  devote  themselves  so  faithfully  to  their 
faith  as  do  these.  And  none,  for  this  very  reason,  are 
more  worthy  of  our  sympathy  and  of  our  assistance  to 
rise  to  better  things  in  the  realm  of  faith. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

HINDU    RELIGIOUS    IDEALS   AS    THEY    AFFECT   THE 
PROGRESS    OF   CHRISTIANITY 

To  the  student  of  comparative  religion  there 
appear  many  striking  consonances  between  Hin- 
duism and  Christianity.  Many  a  deep  note  in  reli- 
gious thought  and  life  finds  common  expression  in 
these  two  great  faiths.  Yet  their  dissonances  are 
much  more  marked  and  fundamental. 

In  nothing  are  Christianity  and  Hinduism  more 
antipodal  than  in  the  ideals  which  they  exalt,  re- 
spectively, before  their  followers;  and  this  conflict 
of  ideals  is  the  most  stubborn,  as  it  is  the  most 
pervasive,  that  Christianity  has  to  face  in  India. 
The  vision  of  God  and  of  man,  of  human  life  and 
attainment,  which  we  present  before  an  orthodox 
Hindu,  does  not  impress  him  as  it  should,  simply 
because  it  does  not  fit  into  his  thinking.  It  antago- 
nizes his  inherited  prepossessions;  it  violates  many 
of  the  most  cherished  ideals  of  religious  life  and 
spiritual  endowment,  which,  from  time  immemorial, 
have  been  handed  down  to  him. 


220 


HINDU  RELIGIOUS  IDEALS  221 

It  is  an  interesting  question  how  much  of  this 
difference  is  of  the  essence  of  the  two  religions, 
and  how  much  is  the  product  of  the  mental  and 
spiritual  make-up  of  the  tropical  East,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  the  more  northern  West,  on  the  other. 
The  climatic  and  national  idiosyncrasies  are  more 
potential  in  the  complexion  of  the  two  faiths  than 
we  are  wont  to  think. 

But  whether  these  different  ideals  are,  or  are 
not,  essentially  characteristic  of  the  two  faiths,  is 
not  a  question  quite  germane  to  my  present  pur- 
pose. It  is  enough  to  remember  that  the  western 
conception  of  Christianity,  which  the  missionary 
has  inherited  and  which  he  is  eagerly  presenting, 
and  can  hardly  avoid  presenting,  to  the  people  of 
this  land,  is  far  removed  from  what  the  Hindu  has 
always  been  taught  to  believe  that  a  religion  should 
bring  into  a  man's  life  and  possession. 

It  is  easy  enough  to  prove  to  the  man  of  ordi- 
nary intelligence  the  debasing  influence  of  idolatry, 
the  accursed  slavery  of  the  caste  system,  the  gross 
immorality  of  the  Hindu  pantheon,  and  the  dwarf- 
ing and  degrading  character  of  the  ceremonialism 
of  modern  Hinduism. 

But   behind   and   above   all   these,  the  Hindu  has 


222  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

inherited  a  number  of  ideals  which  allure  and  com- 
mand him.  They  are  his  ultimate  criteria  and 
resort,  and  they  conflict  with  those  which  the  sup- 
planting faith  presents  as  the  summum  bonum  of 
life.  It  is  not  until  the  Christian  teacher  can  show 
to  him,  in  a  way  that  will  move  him,  the  excellence 
of  the  supreme  ideals  of  Christianity  above  those 
of  the  old  faith,  that  his  work  can  be  said  to  have 
achieved  a  triumph  in  his  life. 

Hence  the  great  —  I  might  almost  say  the  tran- 
scendent—  importance  of  mission  schools  of  all 
grades  through  which  are  sown  the  seed  of  a  new 
philosophy  of  life.  Herein  also  lies  the  even  more 
valued  service  which  a  sane  and  a  strong  Christian 
literature  in  English  and  in  all  the  vernaculars  of 
the  land  can  render,  and  is  rendering,  to  the  cause 
of  Christ  in  India.  For  the  fight  in  India  is,  more 
than  it  is  or  has  been  in  any  other  land,  one  that 
gathers  around  basal  conceptions  and  fundamental 
postulates  about  God  and  man  and  life;  and  Chris- 
tianity can  never  seem  attractive  to  an  intelligent 
Hindu  until  it  has  conquered  his  assent  at  these 
points  of  vital  importance. 

Let  us  consider  a  few  of  these  ideals  which  every- 
where and  always  obtrude  themselves  upon  us  in  India. 


HINDU  RELIGIOUS  IDEALS  223 

I 
The  Divine  Ideal 

In  the  conception  of  the  Godhead  which  obtains 
in  Christianity  and  that  which  dominates  modern 
Hinduism  there  is  found  a  difference  of  emphasis 
which  amounts  almost  to  a  contrast.  To  the  Hindu, 
the  Supreme  Soul  or  Brham  is  idealized  Intelligence ; 
to  the  Christian  God  is  perfect  Will.  To  the  former, 
He  is  supreme  Wisdom ;  to  the  other,  He  is  infinite 
Goodness.  The  devotees  of  each  faith  aspire  to  be- 
come like  unto,  or  to  partake  of,  their  Divine  Ideal. 
Hence  the  goal  of  the  one  is  brahma  gnana  (Divine 
Wisdom) ;  of  the  other,  it  is  supreme  love  or  good- 
ness. Thus  at  its  foundation  the  religion  of  India  has 
always  placed  perfect  intelligence  as  its  corner  stone, 
while  the  basis  of  the  rival  faith  has  been  an  ideal 
of  ethical  perfection.  Hence,  that  process  of  intel- 
lectual gymnastics  which  so  markedly  characterizes 
the  higher  realms  of  Hindu  sainthood  and  effort, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  altruistic  fervour  and  out- 
going charity  of  the  ideal  Christian,  on  the  other. 
For  this  reason,  also,  the  great  root  of  bitterness 
which  Hinduism  has,  from  the  first,  sought  to 
remove  has  been  ignorance  (avidia]  —  that  intel- 


224  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

lectual  blindness  which  persists  in  maintaining  that 
the  self  and  the  Supreme  Soul  are  separate  realities 
and  which  is  the  only  barrier  to  the  self's  final 
emancipation  and  final  absorption  into  the  Divine. 
To  the  Christian,  on  the  other  hand,  the  dread 
enemy  is  sin  —  that  moral  obliquity  which  differen- 
tiates the  soul  from  the  perfect  ethical  beauty  of 
God.  In  consonance  with  this,  the  salvation  which 
is  exalted  as  the  summum  bonum,  to  be  forever 
sought  by  the  one,  is  self-knowledge,  by  the  other 
self-realization  in  conformity  to  the  Divine  Will. 
I  would  not  affirm  that  moral  rectitude  is  absent  as 
a  desideratum  from  the  ambition  of  the  Hindu,  nor 
that  the  Christian  does  not  accept  with  his  Lord 
that  "this  is  eternal  life  to  know  God,"  and  that  he 
does  not  aspire  with  the  great  Apostle  "to  know 
even  as  I  am  known."  But  the  supreme  emphasis 
which  is  given  by  the  one  to  nescience  as  the  evil 
to  be  removed,  and  to  wisdom  as  the  crowning 
grace  to  be  achieved,  and,  by  the  other,  to  rebellion 
of  heart  against  God  as  the  great  sin,  and  to  trans- 
formation to  His  moral  image  as  perfected  salva- 
tion, is  much  too  marked  to  be  overlooked  by  the 
student  of  these  two  faiths,  and  by  the  Christian 
missionary  in  the  land. 


HINDU  RELIGIOUS  IDEALS  225 

And  all  of  this  comes  as  a  natural  consequence 
from  the  different  concepts  which  the  two  religions 
have  of  God  Himself.  Indeed,  these  two  standpoints 
from  which  the  Godhead  is  conceived  account  for 
the  deepest  divergencies  of  Hindu  and  Christian 
philosophy  and  theology. 

II 

The    Hindu    and   Christian    Conceptions    of   Incar- 
nation are  similarly  Divergent 

Incarnation  is  a  fundamental  doctrine  of  the 
religion  of  Jesus.  It  is  also  an  overshadowing  tenet 
of  modern  Hinduism.  For  this  reason,  the  Chris- 
tian missionary  finds  in  this  doctrine  the  best  lever- 
age wherewith  to  raise  the  Hindu  to  our  faith. 
Yet  at  this  very  point  his  efforts  are  largely  frus- 
trated by  the  very  different  conceptions  which  ob- 
tain in  the  two  religions.  The  Christian  incarnation 
must  be,  and  is,  first  of  all,  of  a  perfect  ethical  type 
— an  ideal  of  transcendent  moral  beauty  and  spirit- 
ual excellence.  The  least  flaw  or  crookedness  in 
His  character  would  vitiate  His  pretensions,  and 
would  be  the  death-blow  to  the  doctrine  of  His 
incarnation  and  divinity.  In  Hinduism,  on  the 
other  hand,  moral  criteria  have  no  application  to 


226  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

the  "descents"  or  incarnations  of  Vishnu.  To  his 
three  first  incarnations  (of  the  fish,  the  tortoise, 
and  the  boar),  moral  tests  are,  of  course,  out  of 
place ;  nor  are  they  any  more  applicable  to  the 
grossly  sensual  Krishna,  who  is  the  only  "  full " 
incarnation  of  the  god,  and  who  is  the  supremely 
popular  modern  incarnation  of  the  Hindu  pantheon. 
Hindus  have  never  dreamt  of  squaring  the  "  going " 
of  their  incarnations  with  ethical  demands  and 
standards. 

Whatsoever  of  good  Vishnu,  in  his  descent,  is  said 
to  have  come  to  achieve  in  the  world,  it  certainly  was 
not  a  moral  or  a  spiritual  good.  So  an  appeal  to  the 
moral  excellence,  or  to  the  atoning  work  and  purpose, 
of  the  Christ  does  not,  at  first,  in  any  way  impress 
them  as  an  argument  for  His  divine  character  or 
heavenly  origin,  any  more  than  the  moral  obliquity  of 
their  own  "  descents  "  argues  to  the  contrary. 

Moreover,  the  Hindu  conception  of  incarnation 
largely  resembles  the  Jewish.  It  must  be  a  triumphant 
descent.  Vishnu,  in  all  his  incarnations,  came  to  de- 
stroy rather  than  to  suffer  himself  to  be  put  to  death. 
A  suffering  and  a  dying  god  is  to-day,  to  the  Hindu, 
what  it  was  twenty  centuries  ago  to  the  Jew  and  Greek 
—  a  stumbling-block  and  a  foolishness.  It  is  true  that 


HINDU   RELIGIOUS  IDEALS  227 

Buddha,  who  was  in  more  recent  times  adopted  as  an 
incarnation,  in  order  to  win  over  to  modern  Hinduism 
the  followers  of  his  faith,  is  somewhat  of  an  exception 
to  this  rule.  But  not,  according  to  the  Hindu  inter- 
pretation of  it. 

So  the  two  elements  of  glory  in  the  incarnation  of 
Christ — His  spotless  character  and  His  Cross  and 
death  —  do  not  ordinarily  appeal  to  the  inhabitants  of 
this  land  as  in  any  sense  necessary  or  important. 

Ill 

Ideals  of  Life 

From  the  above  considerations  it  will  be  natural  to 
conclude  that  the  ideals  of  life  entertained  by  the  East 
and  West  are  far  removed.  The  conflict  of  these 
ideals  is  the  primary  cause  of  the  many  strange  reli- 
gious and  social  movements  which  to-day  send  their 
ramifications  into  every  town  and  hamlet  of  this  land ; 
and  it  creates  the  mighty  revolution  now  at  work  in 
India. 

Consider  first  the  religious  ideals  which  dominate 
this  land  and  the  "  Far  West."  Hinduism  has  exalted 
asceticism  as  the  highest  type  of  life  and  the  best 
method  of  holy  attainment.  From  time  immemorial 
the  religious  mendicant,  with  his  ideals  of  self-renunci- 


228  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

ation  and  ascetic  practices,  has  found  universal  admir- 
ation among  this  people,  and  his  motives  and  methods 
stand  as  the  most  highly  approved  in  all  the  annals  of 
this  religion. 

It  is  true  that  this  was  universally  exalted  above  all 
other  forms  of  life  among  Christians  also  at  one  time, 
as  it  continues  to  be  among,  perhaps,  the  majority 
to-day.  And  is  not  the  Cross,  which  is  the  emblem  of 
self-renunciation  and  self-effacement,  the  motive  power 
of  our  faith,  as  it  is  also  the  embodied  ideal  of  our  Life  ? 
True ;  but  there  is  this  marked  difference  between  the 
two  faiths.  In  Christianity  the  Cross  is  only  a  means. 
The  Cross  of  self-effacement  is  the  pathway  of  Christ 
and  of  the  Christian  to  the  crown  of  self-realization. 
We  despise  the  lower  good  in  order  that  we  may 
attain  unto  the  higher. 

In  Hinduism,  the  rigours  of  asceticism  are,  indeed, 
sometimes  a  means  to  an  end;  but  that  end  is  not 
character  or  any  spiritual  achievement,  but  power  with 
the  gods.  Nearly  all  the  notable  instances  of  religious 
austerities  and  self-torture  practised  \sy  yogis,  and  re- 
corded in  Hindu  legend  and  history,  were  undertaken 
for  the  purpose  of  accumulating  thereby  a  great  store 
of  merit  through  which  power  might  be  acquired  over 
men  or  gods.  Thus  many  an  ascetic  is  said  to  have  so 


HINDU  RELIGIOUS  IDEALS  229 

subdued  and  afflicted  his  body  that  nearly  the  whole 
Hindu  pantheon  trembled  in  the  presence  of  the 
power  thus  acquired  by  him. 

But  when  the  Hindu  ascetic  has  not  this  object  in 
self-renunciation,  his  austerities  are  an  end  in  them- 
selves. He  renounces  all  —  not  simply  the  mean 
things  of  life,  but  also  the  noblest  ambitions  and  the 
most  heavenly  sentiments  —  because  they  are  a  fetter 
which  bind  him  to  the  world.  He  indeed  calls  a  good 
deed,  or  a  holy  thought,  a  "  golden  fetter,"  but  it  is, 
just  the  same,  regarded  by  him  as  an  evil  which  pro- 
longs his  human  existence;  and  these  human  con- 
ditions must  be  ended  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  Christian,  on  the  other  hand,  suppresses  his 
passions  in  order  that  his  holy  desires  may  prevail ;  the 
Hindu  struggles  equally  against  the  worst  passions  and 
the  noblest  sentiments  of  his  heart ;  for  they  all  delay 
that  calm  equilibrium  of  the  self  which  is  the  doorway 
into  sayutchia  (absorption).  Thus  character,  or  the 
prevalence  of  the  nobler  sentiments  of  our  nature 
above  the  meaner,  is  not,  and  never  has  been,  the  aim 
of  Hindu  asceticism.  And  in  consonance  with  this 
fact  is  the  other,  namely,  that  nine-tenths  of  the  five 
and  a  half  million  ascetics,  sadhus,  and  fakhirs  of  In- 
dia are  universally  recognized  as  pestilential  in  their 


230  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND   THOUGHT 

morals,  and  as  distinguished  examples  of  what  the 
laity  of  the  land  should  avoid  being  or  becoming. 

The  Christian  seeks,  as  his  ideal,  the  perfect  blend- 
ing of  the  ethical  and  the  spiritual  in  his  life ;  in  Hin- 
duism, faith  has  always  been  divorced  from  morality, 
and  there  has  never  seemed  to  be  any  incongruity,  in 
their  minds,  in  the  act  of  ascribing  true  saintliness  and 
spiritual  excellence  to  those  who  are  known  daily  to 
trample  under  foot  every  command  of  the  Decalogue. 

Thus  the  ideal  life  which  has  captivated  India  from 
time  immemorial,  and  which  at  this  present  wields  a 
mighty  influence  over  the  people,  is  not  the  generous, 
the  upright,  and  morally  spotless  life,  so  much  as  the 
wandering,  the  monastic,  or  the  secluded  forest  life  of 
the  ascetic,  regardless  of  its  spiritual  character.  In 
other  words,  it  is  not  a  stern  and  noble  victory  over 
sin  and  worldliness  in  the  common  relationships  of  life, 
but  a  fleeing  from  the  sin  and  duties  and  responsibili- 
ties of  life  into  the  mutt,  or  wilderness,  which  has  fas- 
cinated the  inhabitants  of  this  peninsula  as  the  best 
type  of  life  possible. 

Now,  in  view  of  all  this,  what  shall  the  Christian 
teacher  do  in  this  land?  Shall  he  also  exalt  this 
ideal  and  temper  it  with  Christian  wisdom  and 
chasten  it  with  Christian  meaning?  Doubtless  the 


HINDU   RELIGIOUS  IDEALS  231 

wise  missionary  will  consider  well  the  amount  of 
emphasis  which  this  aspect  of  life  requires  in  India, 
in  view  of  the  ideal  which  Hinduism  has  presented 
to  the  popular  mind.  He  will  also,  I  think,  hesitate, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  bring  his  faith  into  comparison 
with  Hinduism  in  the  matter  of  mere  ascetic  rigour 
and  severe  self-mortification,  in  which  the  Christian 
has  always  lagged  far  behind  the  Hindu  devotee 
and  monk.  On  the  other  hand,  he  will  not  be 
likely  to  exalt  over-much  this  type  of  life  in  a  land 
in  which,  for  more  than  three  thousand  years,  it  has 
ruled  supremely  but  has  had  so  little  of  moral  signifi- 
cance and  has  achieved  such  meagre  spiritual  results. 
Another  phase  of  life  which  furnishes  to  the 
people  an  ideal  is  the  ceremonial.  Among  the 
myriad  gods  of  the  Hindu  pantheon  and  all 
the  sages  of  its  history  and  legend,  there  is  not  one 
who  is  worthy  to  be  exalted  as  an  ideal  of  char- 
acter. The  reason  is  not  far  to  find.  With  this, 
however,  we  are  not  at  present  concerned.  It  is 
enough  if  we  remember  that  this  absence  of  an 
incarnate  ideal  in  the  religion  has  led  to  the  exal- 
tation of  rules  and  ceremonies  as  the  safeguards  of  — 
yea,  more,  as  the  very  essence  of  —  a  worthy  and 
noble  life.  There  is  no  sadder  fact  in  India  at 


232  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

present  than  that  of  this  great  religion,  of  two  hun- 
dred and  thirty  million  souls,  being  largely  emptied 
of  moral  content  as  related  to  the  common  life, 
and  built  up  of  numberless  petty  external  cere- 
monies which  harass  the  individual,  and  grip  the 
life  with  a  dead  hand  at  all  points.  The  ceremoni- 
alism of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  in  the  days  of 
our  Lord  and  which  excited  His  supreme  wrath, 
was  not  a  consequence  as  compared  to  that  of 
Hinduism  to-day.  From  conception  even  to  the 
burning-ground,  every  detail  of  life,  individual  and 
communal,  religious  and  social  (there  is  no  social 
as  apart  from  religious  life  in  Hinduism),  is  cast 
into  a  mould  of  ceremony  or  ritual  which  robs  it 
of  ethical  content,  and  makes  it  into  what  an  indig- 
nant Brahman  writer  recently  called  "  a  huge  sham." 
To  the  ordinary  Hindu,  all  of  life's  values  are 
measured  in  the  coin  of  external  rites.  Let  one  be 
an  atheist  if  he  please,  or  even  a  libertine  or  a 
murderer,  and  his  status  in  Hinduism  is  not  im- 
paired. But  let  him  eat  beef,  even  unwittingly,  or 
let  him  ignorantly  drink  water  which  has  been 
touched  by  a  man  of  lower  caste  than  himself,  and 
his  doom  is  irrevocably  sealed !  Through  this 
whole  system  the  Hindu  conscience  is  perverted, 


HINDU  RELIGIOUS  IDEALS  233 

and  the  true  distinction  between  right  and  wrong 
is  buried  deep  under  this  greatest  and  most  elabo- 
rate mass  of  ceremonial  that  the  world  has  ever 
known.  To  a  people  who  have  thus  inherited  the 
ceremonial  instinct,  who  are  Pharisees  by  a  hun- 
dred-fold heritage  and  by  sweet  choice,  it  is  not  an 
easy  thing  for  the  man  of  the  West,  with  his  natu- 
ral distrust  of  all  that  is  formal  and  outward  in 
life,  to  present  effectively  his  Lord,  whose  bitterest 
woes  were  pronounced  against  the  formalists  of  His 
time,  and  whose  commands  are  always  ethical,  and 
whose  life  is,  first  of  all,  and  last  of  all,  spiritual. 

Another  ideal  of  life  which  has  too  exclusive 
emphasis  in  this  land  is  that  which  is  denominated 
quietism  —  an  ideal  which  extols  the  passive  virtues 
as  distinguished  from  the  manly,  aggressive  ones. 
I  would  by  no  means  claim  that  these  two  ideals 
are  Hindu  and  Christian,  respectively.  They  are 
rather  begotten  of  the  countries  and  climes  under 
which  the  two  religions  have  been,  for  many  cen- 
turies, fostered.  To  the  eastern  and  tropical  Chris- 
tian, the  teaching  of  our  Lord  furnishes  abundant 
warrant  for  a  glorifying  of  the  passive  and  non- 
resisting  virtues.  And  I  am  inclined  to  believe 
that  we  of  the  West  have  few  things  of  greater 


234  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

importance  and  of  deeper  religious  significance  to 
learn  from  the  East  than  the  appreciation  of  such 
graces  of  life  as  patience  and  endurance  under  evil. 
We  stand  always  prepared  to  fight  manfully  for  our 
convictions,  and  to  obtrude  them  at  all  points  upon 
friend  and  foe  alike.  It  is  not  in  the  nature  of  the 
East  to  do  this.  We  say  that  he  has  no  stamina. 
We  call  him,  in  opprobrium,  "the  mild  Hindu." 
But  let  us  not  forget  that  he  will  reveal  tenfold 
more  patience  than  we  under  very  trying  circum- 
stances, and  will  turn  the  other  cheek  to  the  enemy 
when  we  rush  into  gross  sin  by  our  haste  and  ire. 
His  is  one  of  the  hemispheres  of  a  full-orbed  char- 
acter. Ours  of  the  West  is  the  other.  Let  us  not 
flatter  ourselves  too  positively  that  our  assertive, 
aggressive  part  is  the  more  beautiful  or  the  more 
important.  Yea,  more,  I  question  whether  ours  is 
the  stronger  and  more  masculine  part  of  life  and 
character;  for  is  it  not  to  most  of  us  an  easier 
thing  to  fling  ourselves  in  vehemence  against  an 
evil  in  others  than  it  is  to  sit  calmly  and  patiently 
under  a  false  accusation,  as  our  Lord  Himself  did? 
At  least  it  must  be  left  an  open  question  as  to 
whether  the  impulsive  and  domineering  vigour  of 
the  West  is  preferable  to  the  "  mildness  "  of  the  East. 


HINDU  RELIGIOUS   IDEALS  235 

What  I  wish  to  emphasize  is  the  dissimilarity 
between  our  western  type  of  life  and  the  eastern, 
and  to  warn  the  Christian  worker  from  the  West 
against  the  danger  of  assuming  that  Christian  life 
must  be  adorned  with  only  those  western  traits 
and  excellences  of  character  which  are  foreign  and 
unpalatable  to  the  East  —  the  very  fault  which 
also  characterizes  the  Hindu  on  his  side,  and  which 
makes  him  feel  so  superior  at  times  and  so  inacces- 
sible to  Christian  influence.  For,  let  it  not  be  for- 
gotten that  the  Hindu  regards  what  we  call  our 
foibles  of  petulance,  arrogance,  and  intolerance,  with 
the  same  disapprobation  and  disgust  as  we  do  their 
more  frequent  violation  of  the  seventh,  eighth,  and 
ninth  commandments  of  the  Decalogue.  And  who 
is  to  decide  as  to  which  catalogue  is  the  worse  and 
the  more  heinous  in  the  sight  of  God? 

IV 

The  Hindu  Conception  of  Ultimate  Salvation  presents 
Another  Point  of  Divergence  front  the  Christian 
Ideal  of  Life  Beyond 

Even  in  the  methods  and  processes  of  redemp- 
tion pursued  by  the  two  religions  we  see  funda- 
mental differences.  In  Christianity,  God  is  the  prime 


236  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE   AND  THOUGHT 

Agent  in  human  salvation.  He  worketh  for  us,  in 
us,  and  through  us.  In  our  own  redemption  we  are 
only  co-labourers  with  Him. 

In  Hinduism,  man  stands  absolutely  alone  as  the 
agent  and  cause  of  his  salvation.  And,  as  the  stupen- 
dous task  rests  upon  his  shoulders,  it  is  no  wonder 
that  he  has  sought  relief  in  the  doctrine  of  metempsy- 
chosis, whereby  it  is  believed  that  millions  of  rebirths 
furnish  to  him  an  adequate  time  and  a  sufficient  vari- 
ety of  opportunity  for  the  great  consummation.  But 
he  has  never  given  to  himself,  or  to  us,  the  first  reason 
for  believing  that  this  endless  fugue  of  rebirths  will 
accomplish  that  which  he  accepts  without  questioning ; 
namely,  the  ultimate  glorification  of  all  souls.  There 
is  nothing  in  this  long  and  tedious  process  itself  which 
assures  us  that  any  soul  will  reach  final  beatification 
rather  than  permanent  and  irremediable  degradation. 
And  yet  the  ultimate  absorption  of  all  souls  into  the 
Divine  is  assumed  as  a  matter  of  course  by  him.  This 
process,  and  that  of  Christianity,  are  expressive  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  two  faiths  and  of  the  two  peoples. 
The  slow  and  patient  East,  and  the  faith  which  it  has 
begotten,  spins  out  its  theory  of  time  and  of  human 
existence  almost  ad  infinitum.  Multitudinous  births 
alone  can  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  tedious  process 


HINDU  RELIGIOUS  IDEALS  237 

of  human  emancipation.  But,  in  Christianity,  one 
passage  through  this  world,  with  human  hands  clasped 
in  the  Divine,  suffices  to  open  the  door  of  eternal  bliss 
to  the  redeemed  soul.  And  this  idea  is  consonant 
with  the  more  youthful  nature  of  the  West,  to  whose 
people  one  birth,  followed  by  a  life  of  energy,  furnishes 
an  entrance  into  eternal  joy  beyond. 

It  is  equally  important  that  we  take  note  of  that 
which  is  connoted  by  the  final  consummation  offered 
by  each  of  these  two  faiths  to  their  followers.  To  the 
Christian  there  is  a  conscious,  blessed  life  beyond 
death  —  a  separate,  personal  existence  which  will  last 
throughout  eternity  in  the  sunshine  of  the  Heavenly 
Father's  presence  and  in  the  ineffable  joy  and  glory  of 
His  fellowship.  It  is  the  idealized  life  built  upon  the 
foundation  of  what  is  best  and  most  stirring  and  beau- 
tiful here  upon  earth.  It  is  life,  in  all  that  this  blessed 
word  signifies  of  sweet  contemplation,  of  blissful  activ- 
ity, of  imperishable  love,  and  of  unspeakable  joy.  All 
the  most  beautiful  and  enticing  imagery  of  earth  has 
been  used  to  portray,  or  rather  to  suggest,  the  "  eternal 
life  "  of  the  Christian  religion. 

But  what  is  the  picture  which  Hinduism  has  drawn 
of  the  finality  of  life  to  its  followers  ?  After  the  weary 
fugue  of  births  and  re-births,  with  its  interludes  of 


238  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

many  heavens  and  hells,  the  "  self  "  passes  on  into  final 
union  with  the  Divine  Soul.  It  loses  all  conscious- 
ness and  self-knowledge ;  every  vestige  of  personality 
and  all  that  this  implies  is  swept  away;  it  is  incapaci- 
tated for  every  emotion  of  joy  and  for  every  act  of  ser- 
vice. There  is  nothing  that  we  associate  with  life  at 
its  best  and  sweetest  which  does  not  find  here  nega- 
tion. It  is  a  calm  blank,  a  rest,  indeed,  but  from 
every  struggle  of  thought,  will,  and  emotion.  This 
is  the  consummation  which  India  has  for  many 
centuries  held  aloft  as  an  attraction  to  its  weary 
pilgrims. 

Here,  again,  we  observe  how  appropriate  to  the  end 
in  view  is  the  supreme  difficulty  of  the  way.  If  the 
highest  struggle  of  the  soul  in  this  world  is  against 
existence  and  its  human  actions  and  conditions,  it  is 
to  be  expected  that  a  complete  riddance  of  life  and  of 
all  its  accompaniments  will  be  the  summum  bonum 
of  the  final  consummation.  And  if  this  struggle  for 
emancipation  is  to  continue  through  numberless  births 
and  earthly  existences,  it  is  natural  that  the  coveted 
end  should  bring  a  loss  of  all  that  life  connotes  in 
highest  sentiment  as  well  as  basest  passion.  I  need 
not  dwell  upon  the  contrast  between  this  and  the 
anticipations  entertained  by  every  humble  Christian. 


HINDU  RELIGIOUS  IDEALS  239 

This  whole  eschatological  system  of  Hinduism  cor- 
responds, as  we  have  seen,  to  the  teaching  of  that  faith 
in  reference  to  God,  man,  and  earthly  life  and  condi- 
tions. And  the  Christian  preacher's  or  teacher's  vivid 
portrayal  of  the  Christian's  heaven  too  often  denotes 
to  the  Hindu  only  one  of  the  many  purgatorial  heavens 
of  his  religion,  and  rarely  suggests  to  him  the  supreme 
test  of  the  value  of  our  faith  as  contrasted  with  his 
own.  The  glories  of  our  heaven  do  not  appeal  to 
the  stolid,  weary,  transmigration-ridden  soul  of  the 
Hindu  as  they  do  to  the  youthful,  hopeful,  buoyant 
soul  of  the  Christian.  And  this  is  a  fact  which 
the  missionary  would  do  well  to  keep  in  mind  at  all 
times. 

I  might  continue  the  list  of  the  incompatibilities  of 
Hindu  and  Christian  ideals.  But  I  have  gone  far 
enough  to  show,  I  trust,  that  the  two  faiths  are  at 
many  points  antipodal,  and  that  their  ideals  clash  in 
matters  fundamental  and  crucial. 

Further,  I  wish  to  repeat  that  I  do  not  maintain 
that  Christian  ideals  are  always,  or  even  ever,  repre- 
sented in  their  fulness,  or  with  the  right  emphasis,  by 
us  of  the  West.  Hinduism  is  an  ethnic  faith,  and  it 
must  be  weighed  and  valued  by  the  ideals  which  the 
people  of  this  land  have  imbibed  from  it  and  invariably 


240  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

connect  with  it.  Christianity  is  a  world  faith,  and 
no  one  nation  or  continent  can  be  a  full  exemplar,  or 
an  all-wise  interpreter,  of  its  life  and  ideals.  Hence 
I  claim  that  one  of  the  considerations  which  demand 
closest  attention  from  a  western  teacher,  as  he  imparts 
his  faith  to  the  people  of  India,  is  that  of  the  choice 
and  emphasis  of  ideals  which  he  shall  present  to  them. 
Let  him  neither  assume,  on  the  one  hand,  that  Hindu 
ideals  are  unchristian,  nor,  on  the  other,  that  our 
western  ideals,  both  in  their  emphasis  and  exclusive- 
ness,  are  the  all-in-all  of  Christian  truth  and  life. 
Christianity  in  the  East,  when  it  becomes  thoroughly 
indigenous,  will  reveal  and  glorify  a  different  type  of 
life  from  that  of  the  West.  It  will  be  less  aggressive 
and  assertive,  but  more  contemplative  and  more  deeply 
pious  and  other-worldly  than  anything  we  have  been 
wont  to  see  in  the  West. 

The  day  has  come  when  missionaries  must  study 
with  more  seriousness  the  religion  of  India,  that  they 
may  understand  its  true  inwardness  and  discover  its 
sources  of  power.  Above  all,  they  must  be  conversant 
with  its  highest  ideals  and  understand  the  relationship 
of  the  same  to  those  of  their  own  faith.  And  they 
must  not  forget  that  they  must  approach  this  study 
with  genuine  sympathy  and  appreciation,  in  order  to 


HINDU  RELIGIOUS  IDEALS  241 

find  the  best  in  Hinduism,  as  well  as  to  be  fortified 
against  its  worst  features. 

Never  before  did  the  educated  men  of  this  land 
stand  up  with  more  determination  for  their  old  ideals, 
and  this  is  a  matter  of  serious  concern  to  our  cause. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  most  encouraging  fact  in  the 
realm  of  Christian  work  in  India  at  the  present  time 
is  that  of  the  marvellous  place  which  our  Lord  has 
found  among  the  people  of  the  land,  especially  the 
educated,  as  the  ideal  of  life.  They  will  have  none 
of  Him  as  a  Saviour,  and  His  death  has  no  signifi- 
cance to  them.  But  His  blessed  life  has  become  the 
inspiration  and  the  ideal  of  life  to  the  cultured  classes 
of  India,  in  a  way  which  is  transforming  their  ethical 
conceptions  and  which  largely  eclipses  all  other  life- 
influences  among  them.  Herein  lies  our  hope  and 
assurance  for  India.  But  what  they  crave,  and  what 
they  say  they  must  have,  is  "an  Oriental  Christ,"  a 
Christ  who  is  not  presented  in  a  western  garb  of  life 
and  thought.  Herein  do  we  learn  a  most  important 
lesson  for  our  life-work,  as  Christian  missionaries  in 
this  land  of  the  East. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE    HOME    LIFE    OF    HINDUS 

THE  home  life  of  a  people  is  one  of  the  most 
decisive  tests  of  its  character  and  its  state  of  civil- 
ization. 

In  this  chapter  I  shall  attempt  only  to  describe 
the  home  life  of  Hindus.  And  even  within  this 
limitation  I  can  only  refer  to  the  general  character- 
istics which  obtain  among  nearly  all  Hindus,  and  shall 
pass  by  the  details,  which  differ  so  largely  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  and  among  different  castes. 

It  is  in  the  home  that  the  natural  religious  bent 
of  the  Hindu  finds  its  full  scope  and  most  touching 
manifestations.  Generally  speaking,  one  may  say  that 
the  house  of  a  Hindu  is  his  sanctuary,  where  the  tutelar 
god  has  its  niche  or  shrine  to  which  daily  worship  is 
rendered.  There  is  hardly  any  event  connected  with 
home  life  which  is  not  religiously  viewed  and  made 
the  occasion  of  definite  family  worship.  Of  the  sixteen 
events  in  the  life  of  a  man,  from  birth  to  death,  there 
is  not  one  which  is  not  viewed  from  a  religious  aspect, 

and  is  not  accompanied  by  an  elaborate  ritual. 

242 


THE   HOME   LIFE   OF   HINDUS  243 

There  is  hardly  a  respectable  Hindu  household  in 
which  there  is  not  a  shrine  containing  an  idol  of  stone 
or  of  some  metal  which  corresponds  in  value  to  the 
measure  of  the  family's  wealth.  "  Every  morning  and 
evening  it  is  worshipped  by  the  hereditary  purohit,  or 
priest,  who  visits  the  house  for  the  purpose  twice  a 
day,  and  who,  as  the  name  implies,  is  the  first  in  all 
ceremonies,  second  to  none  but  the  Guru,  or  spiritual 
guide.  The  offerings  of  rice,  fruits,  sweetmeats,  and 
milk,  made  to  the  god,  he  carries  home  after  the  close 
of  the  service.  A  conch  is  blown,  a  bell  is  rung,  and 
a  gong  beaten  at  the  time  of  worship,  when  the  reli- 
giously disposed  portion  of  the  inmates,  male  and 
female,  in  a  quasi-penitent  attitude,  make  their  obei- 
sance to  the  god  and  receive  in  return  the  hollow 
benediction  of  the  priest."1 

Even  the  building  of  the  house  is  a  matter  which 
must  be  done  according  to  the  rules  of  faith.  The 
selection  of  a  site,  the  correct  orientation  of  the 
building,  the  number  and  location  of .  the  rooms, 
the  proper  material  for  the  structure,  —  all  of  these 
must  be  determined  by  the  Vastu  Sastri,  or  the  archi- 
tects, who  do  their  business  not  so  much  on  scientific 
lines  as  upon  religious.  They  have  their  Shastras,  or 

1  From  "  Hindus  as  They  Are." 


244  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

books  of  instruction,  in  architecture,  whose  basis  is 
largely  a  consideration  of  the  supposed  sentiments  of 
the  gods  and  a  proper  harmonizing  in  the  building 
of  various  religious  conceits,  crude  superstitions,  and 
immemorial  customs. 

Even  the  day  and  hour  of  entering  and  dedicating 
the  house  must  be  fixed  by  rules  of  faith,  which  are  as 
exacting  as  they  are  multitudinous.  To  enter  and 
consecrate  a  house  at  the  wrong  astrological  moment 
would  bring  in  its  train  a  number  of  domestic  disasters. 
The  house  may  be  anything,  from  a  most  primitive  hut 
to  a  many-aisled  palace ;  but  in  every  case  the  astrolo- 
ger must  be  consulted  as  to  the  time;  the  spiritual 
architect  must  give  his  rules  as  to  the  structure ;  and 
the  family  priest  must  make  the  house  habitable  by  an 
elaborate  ceremonial  and  offerings  to  the  god  or  gods 
of  the  family. 

It  is  only  after  all  these  have  been  accomplished 
that  a  householder  may,  with  a  clean  conscience,  enter 
his  new  home  and  expect  a  blessing  upon  his  family 
therein. 

To  a  stranger  who  passes  through  the  streets  of 
a  town  or  village  it  may  seem  strange  that  no  two 
adjoining  houses  have  exactly  the  same  orientation. 
He  may  think  it  an  evidence  of  carelessness,  or  a  want 


THE   HOME   LIFE   OF  HINDUS  245 

of  taste.  But  to  the  Hindu  it  is  the  result  of  pious 
conformity  to  the  rules  of  his  faith.  To  a  non-Hindu 
it  may  seem  peculiar  that  Hindus  generally  enter  their 
new  homes  in  the  first  half  of  the  year.  But  to  the 
Hindu  it  is  the  only  half  when  the  gods  are  awake ; 
it  would  be  unpropitious  and  almost  sacrilegious  to 
dedicate  a  house  in  that  part  of  the  year  when  the 
gods  are  supposed  to  be  asleep! 
/The  Hindu  home  would  not  be,  to  a  westerner, 
either  jDleasant  or  convenient.  It  looks  dingy  and 
dark,  doors  are  small  and  massive,  windows  are  few 
and  generally  closed.  This  is  partly  because  they  are 
intended  to  keep  out  the  tropical  glare,  and  partly 
because  the  people  seem  averse  to  occupying  an  airy 
room.  /  A  westerner  would  suffocate  in  a  room  in 
which  Hindus  would  delight  to  spend  a  night.  It  has 
always  been  a  wonder  to  the  writer  that  they  thrive  on 
so  little  fresh  air  in  their  homes. 

Hindus,  in  the  main,  care  very  little  for  elaborate 
household  furniture:*  Even  in  homes  of  wealth, 
articles  of  household  furniture  are  few  and  are  chosen- 
merely  fon,  utility's  sake,  save  in  homes  where  west- 
ern ideas  are  finding  their  way  and  a  growing  desire 
to  ape  western  manners  takes  possession  of  a  family. 
Some  years  ago,  a  wealthy  Hindu  gentleman  wel- 


246  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

corned  the  writer  into  his  fine  new  three-storied  bun- 
galow, whose  front  door  was  elaborately  carved  and 
had  cost  Rs.  2000.  It  was  furnished  with  fantastic 
articles  of  European  furniture.  Mechanical  toys  and 
speaking  dolls  had  places  of  prominence ;  and  among 
the  pictures  which  adorned  the  walls  the  place  of 
honour  was  given  to  a  framed  tailor's  pattern-plate ! 
A  lull-sized  painting  of  the  late  British  queen  was 
specially  honoured  by  being  kept  in  a  dark  closet! 
The  family  did  not  live  in  this  house,  but  occupied  a 
comfortable  one-storied  building  in  the  back  yard. 
It  was  adequate  to  their  needs  and  in  harmony  with 
their  tastes. 

Hindus  generally  sleep  on  the  floor.  They  spread 
a  mat  under  them,  and  this  suffices  for  the  ordinary 
man.  Many  add  to  this  a  dirty  pillow,  which  is  a 
mark  of  extravagance  and  an  evidence  of  degeneracy. 
The  men  of  the  house  may  sleep  anywhere  within, 
or  in  the  verandah  without,  according  to  the  season 
of  the  year.  Recently,  western  ideas  have  en- 
croached upon  this  primitive,  sanitary  custom,  and 
cots  are  finding  an  ever  increasing  place  in  the  house- 
hold economy. 

The  Hindu  family  system  is  widely  different  from 
that  of  the  West.  Among  them  the  Joint  Family 


THE  HOME   LIFE   OF  HINDUS  247 

System  prevails  universally.  It  is  built  on  the  old 
patriarchal  idea,  according  to  which  three  generations 
generally  live  under  the  same  roof  and  enjoy  a  com- 
munity of  life  and  of  interest.  When  a  man  and 
wife  have  reared  a  family,  the  sons  bring  to  the 
paternal  home  their  wives  and  live  together  and 
raise  their  families  in  the  common  home  of  their 
father.  The  supreme x  authority,  in  the  direction  of 
all  their  affairs,  rests  with  the  father.  And  the 
mother  generally  takes  charge  of  the  household  com- 
missariat. The  whole  income  of  all  the  members 
of  the  family  is  brought  into  the  common  treasury, 
out  of  which  all  expenses  are  met.  There  is  no 
individual  property,  and  no  rights  and  privileges 
which  any  one  can  claim  apart  from  another's  in  that 
home.  In  large  Hindu  families  there  is  often  found 
a  small  colony  thus  living  together  and  dependent 
for  guidance  and  instruction  upon  the  father.  This 
system  entails  a  great  deal  of  responsibility  upon  the 
head,  whose  authority  is  supreme.  And  so  loyal 
is  every  Hindu  to  paternal  authority  that  there  is 
never  any  question  raised  by  any  one  as  to  obedience 
to  his  commands. 

This  system  has   its  advantages.     In  early  times, 
it  brought  strength  and  security  to  households  thus 


248  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

consolidated.  It  is  doubtless  favourable  to  general 
economy.  And  it  has  the  peculiar  merit  of  develop- 
ing a  strong  sense  of  responsibility  in  the  whole 
family  for  its  every  member,  however  incapacitated 
she  or  he  may  be  for  self-support.  The  weak  and 
the  sick  and  the  feeble-minded  have  the  same  claim 
upon  the  resources  of  the  family  as  have  the  others, 
and  the  claim  is  universally  recognized.  For  this 
reason,  poor-houses  are  not  needed  in  India. 

On  the  other  hand,  Hindus  themselves  are  coming 
to  regard  this  system  as  being  out  of  joint  with  modern 
life,  under^the  aegis  of  a  progressive,  civilized  govern- 
ment. One  of  its  chief  defects  is  its  encouragement 
of  laziness  in  members  of  families.  No  one  feels  that 
he  is  responsible  for  his  own  maintenance.  And  no 
matter  how  industrious  a  member  may  be,  the  prod- 
uct of  his  labour  is  not  his  own  —  it  belongs  to  the 
family.  Such  a  system  saps  the  foundation  of  indus- 
try and  enterprise.  It  furnishes  constant  temptation 
to  slothfulness  and  inactivity.  In  former  times,  this 
may  not  have  been  so  manifest;  but  at  present,  when 
opportunities  open  wide  their  inviting  doors,  and 
means  of  accumulating  wealth  and  influence  multi- 
ply, the  system  has  become  a  source  of  discontent 
and  of  serious  difficulty  in  the  community. 


THE   HOME   LIFE  OF  HINDUS  249 

A  few  years  ago  the  educated  Hindus  of  South 
India  were  so  exercised  over  the  injustice  of  the  situa- 
tion that  they  urged  upon  the  Madras  Legislature  a 
new  act,  called  "the  Gains  Learning  Bill,"  whereby 
every  man  might  claim  the  financial  results  of  his 
own  labours  and  accumulate  wealth  apart  from  the 
property  of  the  family.  The  matter  was  fully  argued 
in  the  Legislature,  and  the  injustice  of  the  Joint 
Family  System  was  so  clearly  revealed  in  this  matter, 
that  the  bill  was  carried  through.  Thereupon,  ortho- 
dox Hindus  raised  such  a  storm  of  opposition  to  the 
bill  and  decried  it  so  vehemently,  as  a  subversion  of 
their  faith  and  an  overthrow  of  their  most  ancient 
and  cherished  institution,  that  the  governor  never 
signed  the  bill  ;  and  it  has  therefore  never  become 
law. 

Nevertheless,  the   agitation   against   the  system  is  t 
increasing,  and  the  incongruity  of  the  Joint  Family 
System  with  modern  social   conditions  is   becoming 
so   marked    that   the    day  of    its    overthrow   is   ap- 
proaching. 

A  well-known  Hindu  writer  describes  the  injustice 
of  this  system  as  follows :  "  As  one  of  the  usual 
consequences  of  a  patriarchal  system,  a  respectable 
Hindu  is  often  obliged  to  support  a  number  of 


250  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

hangers-on,  more  or  less  related  to  him  by  kinship. 
A  brother,  an  uncle,  a  nephew,  a  brother-in-law,  etc., 
with  their  families,  are  not  infrequently  placed  in 
this  dependent  position,  notwithstanding  the  trite 
apothegm,  which  says,  '  it  is  better  to  be  dependent 
on  another  for  food  than  to  live  in  his  house!  " 

Moreover,  this  system  fosters  family  dissension. 
It  requires  an  ideal  family,  under  the  strong  guidance 
of  an  ideal  head,  to  live  in  peace  and  harmony  under 
this  system.  The  writer  above  quoted,  himself  a 
Hindu  who  had  long  lived  under  the  system,  ex- 
pressed himself  strongly  upon  the  subject :  "  The 
millennium  is  not  yet  come.  Seven  brothers  living 
together  with  their  wives  and  children,  under  one 
and  the  same  paternal  roof,  cannot  reasonably  be 
expected  to  abide  in  a  state  of  perfect  harmony,  so 
long  as  selfishness  and  incongruous  tastes  and  inter- 
ests are  continually  working  to  sap  the  very  founda- 
tion of  friendliness  and  good-fellowship.  Union  is 
strength,  but  harmonious  union,  under  the  peculiar 
regime  indicated  above,  is  already  a  remarkable  ex- 
ception in  the  present  state  of  Hindu  society.  On 
careful  inquiry  it  will  be  found  that  women  are  at 
the  bottom  of  that  mischievous  discord  which  eats 
into  the  very  vitals  of  domestic  felicity.  Separation, 


THE   HOME   LIFE   OF   HINDUS  25! 

therefore,  is  the  only  means  that  promises  to  afford 
relief  from  this  social  incubus;  and  to  separation 
many  families  have  now  resorted,  much  after  the 
fashion  of  the  dominant  race,  with  a  view  to  the  un- 
interrupted enjoyment  of  domestic  happiness." 

Outside  of  the  family  itself,  perhaps  the  two  most 
important  functionaries  are  the  family  priest  and  the 
astrologer.  And  of  these  two  the  latter  is  doubtless 
the  more  influential.  It  is  well  known,  as  I  have 
written  on  another  page,  that  Hindus  are  not  only  firm 
believers  in  astrology,  but  also  the  abject  slaves  of  this 
science,  falsely  so-called,  in  all  the  affairs  of  life.  It  is 
wonderful  how  many  events  in  the  life  of  a  family  come 
within  the  realm  of  astrological  guidance  and  control. 
From  birth  to  death,  most  of  the  important  transactions 
of  life  are  controlled  by  astrological  considerations. 

And  with  the  astrologer  we  naturally  join  the  sooth- 
sayer, who  is  frequently  in  demand  to  pronounce  his 
incantations  and  utter  his  mantras,  to  remove  all  kinds 
of  maladies  and  misfortune  that  may  overtake  members 
of  the  family.  It  is  impossible  for  a  Westerner  to 
realize  how  much  of  the  life  of  the  Hindu,  in  the 
home  and  in  society,  is  circumscribed  by  superstitions 
and  directed  by  omens  only.  In  the  case  of  a  man 
setting  out  upon  a  journey  forty-three  different  things 


252  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

may  happen  which  prognosticate  good,  and  thirty-four 
which  forebode  evil.  In  household  matters,  the  eye  of 
the  Hindu  man,  and  very  specially  of  the  Hindu  woman, 
is  ever  open  to  any  one  of  a  thousand  indications  that 
may  reveal  the  will  of  the  god  or  the  demon  as  to 
conduct  on  the  occasion. 

•  The  position  of  women  in  the  Hindu  home  is  fun- 
damental, and  much  misunderstood  by  the  people  of 
the  West 

It  is  sadly  true  that  woman  in  Hinduism  has 
suffered,  throughout  the  centuries,  gross  injustice,  and 
has  laboured  under  a  thousand  disabilities.  But  it  does 
not  follow  from  this,  as  those  not  familiar  with  Hindu 
lives  are  too  apt  to  conclude,  that  woman  is  therefore 
a  nonenity  and  a  mere  helpless  drudge  in  the 
family. 

It  is  true  that  the  great  lawgiver,  Manu,  said,  "  No 
sacrifice  is  allowed  to  women  apart  from  their  husbands, 
no  religious  rite,  no  fasting;  as  far  only  as  a  wife 
honours  her  lord,  so  far  is  she  exalted  to  heaven." 
In  accordance  with  this,  Hinduism  has  always  consist- 
ently maintained  that  woman's  well-being  is  entirely 
derived  from  her  relationship  to  man.  Her  salvation 
is  to  be  acquired  through  him.  Her  glory  upon  earth 
and  her  bliss  in  heaven  and  final  emancipation  depend 


THE   HOME   LIFE   OF   HINDUS  253 

upon  her  attitude  to  him,  specially  her  obedience  and 
devotion. 

It  is  also  true,  that  in  no  stage  of  her  existence  can 
she  be  regarded  as  independent.  She  is  dependent 
upon  her  father  in  childhood,  the  slave  of  her  husband 
so  long  as  he  lives,  and  subject  to  her  son  during  the 
days  of  her  widowhood.  Hinduism  leaves  her  no 
opportunity,  in  this  human  existence,  for  liberty  and 
independence. 

Hindu  ideas  of  womanhood  have  always  been  low 
and  unworthy.  Rather  than  being  considered  a  help- 
meet to  man,  she  has  ever  been  regarded  as  his  tempter 
and  seducer.  The  proverbs  of  India  are  full  of  these 
base  insinuations  concerning  womanhood.  "What  is 
the  chief  gate  to  hell  ?  Woman."  j  This  is  only  one 
of  a  host  of  common  sayings  which  brand  the  woman- 
hood of  India  with  shame. 

It  is  for  this  same  reason  that  woman  has  always 
been  held  unworthy  of  education.  \  To  educate  a  woman 
is  compared  to  placing  a  knife  in  the  hands  of  a  monkey. 
The  ignorance  of  the  women  of  India  to-day  is  not  a 
matter  of  careless  neglect,  but  rather  of  studied  purpose 
to  deny  to  them  that  which  might  change  their  relation- 
ship of  subjection  to  man. 

One  might   suppose   that   in   matters   of   religion, 


254  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

which  is  the  peculiar  consolation  of  the  woman  of 
India,  a  wide  door  of  opportunity  might  be  given  to 
her.  But  here  again  Manu  says,  "  Woman  has  no 
business  with  the  texts  of  the  Vedas;  thus  is  the  law 
fully  settled.  Having  therefore  no  evidence  of  law, 
and  no  knowledge  of  expiatory  texts,  sinful  woman 
must  be  as  foul  as  falsehood  itself ;  and  this  is  a  fixed 
rule." 

There  are  texts  which  command  kindness  and  re- 
spect  to  womanhood.  But  the  above  quotations  repre- 
sent the  tenor  of  Hindu  literature. 

All  of  these  represent  the  attitude  of  man  toward 
woman  in  the  home.  In  society,  she  has  had  no 
recognized  place  whatever,  until  the  present,  when, 
under  the  influence  of  western  civilization,  she  is 
beginning  to  find  a  very  limited  scope  for  her  legiti- 
mate activities. 

Nevertheless,  in  the  seclusion  of  her  own  home, 
and  inheriting  the  burden  of  this  deep  reproach 
heaped  upon  her  from  time  immemorial  by  men, 
woman  has  created  for  herself  a  place  of  power  in 
the  Hindu  home.  Within  this  sanctuary  she  has 
erected  her  throne  and  reigns  a  queen.  Has  man 
kept  her  in  ignorance  ?  She  will  therefore  apply  her- 
self the  more  assiduously  to  works  of  faith  and  piety. 


THE   HOME   LIFE   OF  HINDUS  255 

Has  he  heaped  upon  her  abuse  and  called  her  "  don- 
key "  and  "  buffalo  "  ?  She  has  repaid  the  insult  by  a 
loving  devotion  to  her  lord,  such  as  has  conquered  his 
pride.  Whether  it  be  as  wife  or  mother,  the  women 
of  no  other  land  wield  greater  power  than  the  much- 
abused  women  of  India.  There  is  no  woman  on 
earth  who  reveals,  at  this  present  time,  more  devotion 
and  attachment  to  her  husband  than  does  the  Hindu 
wife.  The  old  system  of  Sati,  whereby  a  woman 
immolated  herself  on  the  funeral  pyre  of  her  dead 
husband,  what  was  it?  It  was,  indeed,  a  custom 
instituted  by  man,  enforced  by  religious  rewards  and 
penalties,  with  a  view  to  reveal  the  woman  as  the 
abject  subject  of  her  husband.  And  yet  she  glorified 
that  custom  and  often  transmuted  it  into  the  most 
sublime  exhibition  of  wifely  devotion.  Hear  the 
description  of  a  Sati,  given  by  a  Hindu,  the  sub- 
ject of  which  was  his  own  aunt.  "  My  aunt,"  writes 
he,  "  was  dressed  in  a  red  silk  sari,  with  all  the  orna- 
ments on  her  person ;  her  forehead  daubed  with  a 
very  thick  coat  of  sindur,  or  vermilion ;  her  feet 
painted  red  with  alta;  she  was  chewing  a  mouthful 
of  betel ;  and  a  bright  lamp  was  burning  before  her. 
She  was  evidently  wrapped  in  an  ecstasy  of  devotion, 
earnest  in  all  she  did,  quite  calm  and  composed  as  if 


256  INDIA :   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

nothing  important  was  to  happen.  In  short,  she  was 
then  at  her  matins,  anxiously  awaiting  the  hour  when 
this  mortal  coil  should  be  put  off.  My  uncle  was 
lying  a  corpse  in  the  adjoining  room.  It  appeared  to 
me  that  all  the  women  assembled  were  admiring  the 
virtue  and  fortitude  of  my  aunt.  Some  were  licking 
the  betel  out  of  her  mouth,  some  touching  her  fore- 
head, in  order  to  have  a  little  of  the  sindur,  or  vermil- 
ion ;  while  not  a  few,  falling  before  her  feet,  expressed 
a  fond  hope  that  they  might  possess  a  small  particle 
of  her  virtue.  ...  In  truth,  she  was  evidently  long- 
ing for  the  hour  when  her  spirit  and  that  of  her  hus- 
band should  meet  together  and  dwell  in  heaven.  She 
had  a  tulsi  mala  (string  of  basil  beads)  in  her  right 
hand,  which  she  was  telling,  and  she  seemed  to  enjoy 
the  shouts  of  '  Hari,  Hari-bole,'  with  perfect  serenity 
of  mind.  We  reached  Nimtalla  Ghat  about  twelve ; 
after  staying  there  for  about  ten  to  fifteen  minutes, 
sprinkling  the  holy  water  on  the  dead  body,  all  pro- 
ceeded slowly  to  the  Kultalla  Ghat,  about  three  miles 
north  of  Nimtalla.  The  dead  body,  wrapped  in  new 
clothes,  being  placed  on  the  pyre,  my  aunt  was  de- 
sired to  walk  seven  times  round  it,  which  she  did 
while  strewing  flowers,  cowries  (shells),  and  parched 
rice  on  the  ground.  It  struck  me  at  the  time  that,  at 

c 


THE   HOME   LIFE   OF   HINDUS  257 

every  successive  circumambulation,  her  strength  and 
presence  of  mind  failed ;  whereupon  the  Darogah 
(government  representative)  stepped  forward  once 
more  and  endeavoured,  even  at  the  last  moment,  to 
deter  her  from  her  fatal  determination.  But  she,  at 
the  very  threshold  of  ghastly  death,  in  the  last  hour  of 
expiring  life,  the  fatal  torch  of  Yama  (Pluto)  before 
her,  calmly  ascended  the  funeral  pile  and,  lying  down 
by  the  side  of  her  husband  with  one  hand  under  his 
head,  and  another  on  his  breast,  was  heard  to  call  in  a 
half-suppressed  voice,  '  Hari,  Hari,'  —  a  sign  of  her 
firm  belief  in  the  reality  of  eternal  beatitude.  When 
she  had  thus  laid  herself  on  the  funeral  pyre,  she  was 
instantly  covered,  or  rather  choked,  with  dried  wood, 
while  some  stout  men  with  bamboos  held  and  pressed 
down  the  pyre,  which  was  by  this  time  burning  fiercely 
on  all  sides.  A  great  shout  of  exultation  then  arose 
from  the  surrounding  spectators,  till  both  the  dead 
and  living  bodies  were  converted  into  a  handful  of 
dust  and  ashes."1 

The  custom  of  Sati  has  been  outlawed ;  but  the 
spirit  of  Sati  still  dominates  the  womanly  heart  of 
the  Hindu  wife. 

It  is  this  beautiful  blending  of  piety  and  wifely  de- 

1  «  Hindus  as  They  Are." 


258  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

votion  which  has  been  the  song  of  Hindu  poets,  and 
the  admiration  of  the  Hindu  community,  from  time 
immemorial.  It  is  true  that  a  wife  dare  not  utter  the 
name  of  her  husband.  The  name  of  the  husband  of  a 
Hindu  woman  was  Faith.  When  she  came  to  read 
the  Bible,  she  skipped  this  word  every  time  it  occurred 
in  her  reading.  Why  should  she  demean  her  lord  by 
pronouncing  publicly  his  sacred  name  ? 

And  yet,  when  it  comes  to  matters  of  religion,  her 
stern  piety  and  her  religious  devotion  in  the  home  are 
the  most  potent  factor  of  the  household ;  and  husband 
and  father  will  bow  to  her  supremacy  in  this  realm. 
All  public  life  and  social  functions  have  been  proscribed 
to  her ;  therefore,  does  she  see  to  it  that  in  her  narrow 
home  sphere,  both  religiously  and  in  the  training  of  her 
children,  her  influence  shall  be  supreme.  And  it  is. 

It  is  here  that  the  progress  of  Christianity  is  much 
impeded  in  India.  A  man  is  often  found  ready  to 
change  his  faith,  and  to  abide  the  consequence  of  the 
same.  It  is  much  more  difficult  for  a  woman  to  trans- 
fer her  affection.  But  the  conversion  of  the  husband 
will  not  abide  in  permanence  so  long  as  the  wife 
persists  in  her  devotion  to  the  ancestral  faith.  The 
writer  has  often  seen  illustrations  of  this  supremacy 
of  the  influence  of  the  woman.  But  it  is  not  always 


259 

so.  In  1823,  a  Brahman  child  was  born  in  Calcutta. 
When  six  years  old,  he  lighted,  by  torch,  the  funeral 
pyre  of  his  dead  father  and  living  mother.  When  he 
attained  manhood  and  had  received  a  University  edu- 
cation, he  became  a  Christian.  He  was  then  not  only 
renounced  by  his  family,  but  his  young  wife  also 
spurned  and  denied  him.  In  accordance  with  her 
faith,  she  regarded  and  treated  him  as  dead,  per- 
formed his  funeral  rites,  and,  with  shaven  head, 
un  jewelled  body,  and  the  widow's  white  cloth, 
mourned  his  decease  as  if  he  had  actually  died. 
For  Christ's  sake  he  had  been  an  outcast  from 
his  people  and  was  twice  dead  to  his  beloved.  This 
experience  has  been  repeated  a  thousand  times  in 
India  in  the  case  of  Christian  converts.  But,  in 
this  particular  instance,  there  was  a  remarkable  de- 
nouement. The  young  man,  deserted,  divorced,  and 
ceremonially  buried  by  his  wife,  married  a  Christian 
woman,  with  whom  he  lived  happily  for  many  years. 
But  after  her  death  he  returned  to  his  first  love  and 
remarried  the  widow  of  his  youth,  who,  in  the  mean- 
while, had  relented  and  become  a  Christian.  This 
was  the  experience  of  Professor  Chuckerbuthy,  of  the 
General  Assembly  College,  in  Calcutta,  who  died  in 
1901. 


26o  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

Marriage  among  Hindus  differs  in  many  respects 
from  the  same  compact  among  western  people.  It 
is  in  no  instance  dependent  upon  the  initiative  of 
the  contracting  parties,  if  such  the  bride  and  the 
bridegroom  may  be  called  in  India.  Neither  of 
them  is  a  direct  participant  in  the  arranging  of  the 
contract.  It  is  all  done  by  the  parents  or  the  guard- 
ians of  the  boy  and  girl.  It  is  entirely  a  business, 
and  not  a  sentimental,  affair.  No  other  system 
would  be  possible  under  past  and  present  conditions 
in  India.  In  the  case  of  infant  marriages,  the  chil- 
dren concerned  have,  of  course,  neither  knowledge 
of,  nor  special  interest  in,  the  matter.  Even  in  cases 
where  the  future  bride  and  bridegroom  have  attained 
puberty,  no  sentiment  is  ever  allowed  to  enter,  as  a 
consideration,  into  the  matter.  The  first  question 
asked  is  whether  the  parties  belong  to  the  same 
caste  and  are  connected  by  family  ties.  If  so,  the 
marriage  may  be  a  suitable  one.  It  is  strange  that 
the  children  of  brothers  and  sisters  furnish  the  most 
suitable  marriage  relationships.  But  the  children  of 
brothers,  or  those  of  sisters,  furnish  a  prohibited  re- 
lationship !  It  is  regarded  as  improper  for  a  boy  to 
marry  the  daughter  of  his  mother's  sister,  or  of  his 
father's  brother,  as  it  would  be  to  marry  his  own 


THE   HOME   LIFE   OF  HINDUS  261 

sister.  The  marriage  of  those  remotely  connected  by 
blood  is  rarely  considered ;  the  marriage  of  those  not 
at  all  connected  by  blood  relationship,  never. 

The  next  matter  of  paramount  importance  is  a 
consideration  of  the  horoscope  of  the  parties.  Were 
the  boy  and  girl  born  under  astrological  conditions 
which  harmonize ;  or  does  her  horoscope  so  conflict 
with  his  that  their  dissonance  would  bring  evil  and 
misery  to  the  family  ?  In  the  latter  case,  a  marriage 
will  be  impossible,  even  though  all  other  conditions 
are  most  inviting. 

Then  follows  the  question  of  dowry;  and  here 
comes  the  great  struggle.  The  girl's  parents  have 
to  furnish,  with  the  bride,  a  considerable  dowry, 
whose  size  is  directly  related  to  the  affluence  of  the 
boy's  family,  or  to  his  education  and  prospects  in 
life.  The  bickerings  which  take  place  in  this  mat- 
ter are  most  unseemly;  and  the  marriage  compact 
is  degraded  into  a  sordid,  mercenary  transaction. 
Fathers  of  girls  involve  themselves  in  debts  which 
they  can  never  clear,  in  order  to  marry  their  darlings 
to  sons  of  high  families  of  good  connection.  It  is 
this  difficulty  of  marrying  daughters,  save  at  an 
intolerable  expense  to  the  family,  which  largely  ac- 
counts for  the  universal  and  keen  disappointment 


262  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 


of  Hindu  families  when  they  discover,  at  childbirth, 
that  a  daughter,  and  not  a  son,  has  been  born. 

The  contract  having  been  sealed  by  definite  re- 
ligious ceremony,  the  children  wait  until  the  girl 
attains  puberty,  which  may  take  place  at  any  time, 
from  the  age  of  ten  to  fourteen.  Then  the  rites  of 
consummation  are  performed,  and  they  live  together 
as  man  and  wife.  Until  the  marriage  is  consum- 
mated, it  is  the  height  of  propriety  that  the  parties 
shall  be  apart  and  strangers  to  each  other. 

It  is  very  often  the  case  that  there  is  much  dis- 
parity between  the  age  of  man  and  wife.  A  married 
woman  is  supposed  to  belong  to  her  lord  for  time 
and  eternity.  A  widow  is  therefore  ineligible  for 
remarriage,  even  though  her  husband  may  have  died 
when  she  was  an  infant.  The  man,  on  the  other 
hand,  may  contract  any  number  of  marriages.  The 
rapidity  and  the  businesslike  way  with  which  he 
proceeds  to  arrange  new  nuptials  after  the  death  of 
his  wife  seems  appalling  to  a  Westerner!  It  mat- 
ters not  how  many  wives  he  may  have  had,  nor  how 
old  he  has  become,  none  but  the  very  young  is  eli- 
gible to  become  his  spouse.  The  consequence  is 
that  many  men  of  matured,  and  even  of  old,  age  are 
wedded  to  mere  girls. 


THE  HOME   LIFE   OF   HINDUS  263 

This  is  partly  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Hindu 
has  not  yet  realized  the  need,  or  importance,  of  com- 
panionship between  man  and  wife.  This  is  very 
marked  among  the  educated  men  of  the  Hindu  com- 
munity. Not  only  by  age,  but  also  by  educational 
and  other  qualifications,  a  wife  is  in  no  condition  to 
be  a  sympathetic  companion  to  her  spouse.  So  that 
the  relationship  has,  to  them,  little  of  mutuality  in  it. 

The  lot  of  the  Hindu  widow  is,  proverbially,  a 
hard  one.  She  is  despised  and  hated,  even  though 
she  be  but  a  child,  because  her  husband's  family 
persist  in  believing  that  his  death  was  caused  by 
her  adverse  horoscope.  She  suffers  every  obloquy 
in  her  husband's  home,  is  deprived  of  her  jewels, 
has  her  head  shaven,  and  is  clothed  only  with  a 
coarse  white  cloth.  Her  fastings  are  long  and  se- 
vere, and  she  is  not  allowed  to  attend  any  festivity; 
for  the  presence  of  a  widow  would  be  deemed  an 
evil  omen  and  a  curse. 

Moreover,  she  is  the  object  of  suspicion,  and  is  fre- 
quently the  prey  of  men's  passions.  It  is  a  strange 
comment  upon  the  religious  perversity  of  a  people 
of  the  tender  domestic  nature  of  Hindus,  that  they 
should  deal  with  so  much  cruelty  and  such  apparent 
indifference  to  the  bereavement  and  suffering  of  the 


264  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

unfortunate  widow  who  bears  so  tender  a  relation- 
ship to  them.  Religion  has  never  wrought  greater 
cruelty  and  injustice  to  any  one  than  to  the  Hindu 
widow,  specially  to  the  child  widow.  And,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  these  suffering  ones  are  a 
great  host  in  this  land,  there  are  few  of  their  people 
who  raise  their  voice  in  their  defence  or  strive  for 
their  relief. 

The  relationship  of  son-in-law  and  mother-in-law  is 
always  a  strained  one.  The  wife's  mother  may  live 
with  her  under  very  decided  limitations.  It  is  not 
permitted  to  her  to  eat  in  the  presence  of  her  son-in- 
law,  or  to  enter  a  room  where  he  happens  to  be  ! 

The  situation  is  still  worse  between  the  daughter-in- 
law  and  the  mother-in-law.  The  vernaculars  of  India 
abound  in  proverbs  which  illumine  this  relationship 
and  reveal  its  strange  character.  The  husband's 
mother  apparently  delights  in  nothing  more  than  in 
exercising  a  cruel  restraint  over  her  son's  wife.  Noth- 
ing that  the  young  woman  can  do  will  please  her. 
And  the  husband  too  often  sides  with  the  older 
against  the  younger  woman.  When,  however,  the 
situation  becomes  intolerable  to  the  wife,  she  takes 
French  leave,  and  goes  home  to  her  parents.  This 
soon  brings  her  husband  to  terms ;  and  it  is  etiquette 


THE   HOME   LIFE  OF  HINDUS  265 

that  he  go  and  ask  her  to  return,  apologizing  for  the 
troubles  that  she  has  endured.  And  so  the  situation 
is  improved,  for  a  while,  until  another  visit  to  her 
parents  becomes  imperative.  It  is  natural  enough 
that  the  mother-in-law  should  thus  deal  harshly  with 
her  daughter-in-law ;  for  is  it  not  her  revenge  for  the 
similar  treatment  which  she  received  many  years  ago 
as  daughter-in-law?  The  real  attitude  of  the  Hindu 
toward  his  wife  is  doubtless  more  cordial  than  it  ap- 
pears to  a  Westerner.  He  seems  to  delight  in  reveal- 
ing an  indifference  to  her  feelings  and  a  contempt  for 
her  position.  In  the  household,  she  is  not  permitted 
to  eat  with  him ;  she  must  wait  upon  his  lordship  and 
take  the  leavings  of  his  meal.  Upon  a  journey,  it 
would  be  gross  impropriety  for  her  to  walk  by  his 
side.  Etiquette  demands  that  she  walk  behind  him 
at  a  respectable  distance  of,  say,  ten  paces. 

The  love  of  jewellery  is  a  marked  passion  with  the 
women  of  India.  Millions  of  money  are  expended 
every  year  in  the  manufacture  of  female  adorn- 
ments. And  in  this  work  there  are  more  than  four 
hundred  thousand  goldsmiths  constantly  employed. 
The  wealth  of  a  family,  especially  among  the  middle 
classes,  is  largely  measured  by  the  amount  of  jew- 
ellery which  the  women  of  the  household  possess. 


266  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

No  one  would  grudge  to  these  women  a  certain 
amount  of  these  personal  ornaments;  but  when  it 
becomes  a  mad  craze  to  convert  all  their  wealth 
into  such  vanity,  and  thus  to  render  their  wealth 
entirely  unremunerative,  it  becomes  a  serious  matter. 
The  loading  down  of  a  woman  or  a  girl  with  precious 
stones,  gold,  silver,  or  cheaper  metal,  adds  anything 
but  attractiveness  to  the  person.  It  gives  them  a 
gross  conception  of  personal  attractiveness  as  well 
as  a  monetary  value  to  beauty,  which  degrades  the 
ideals  of  the  country.  When  a  woman's  ears  and 
nose,  the  crown  of  her  head,  her  neck,  arms,  hands, 
waist,  ankles,  and  toes  are  made  to  sparkle  with  the 
wealth  of  the  family,  and  to  bear  down  the  frail  body 
of  the  proud  victim,  they  cease  entirely  to  set  off  the 
personal  beauty  of  the  woman  herself,  and  become 
rather  a  counter  attraction ;  and  she  is  admired  not 
for  what  she  is,  but  for  what  she  carries. 

Moreover,  it  is  well  known  that  these  women  are 
not  satisfied,  on  public  occasions,  to  wear  their  own 
jewels  only;  they  borrow  also  those  of  their  neigh- 
bours and  shine  with  a  borrowed  light,  which  reflects 
a  great  deal  more  their  vanity  than  their  beauty. 
Many  a  time  has  the  writer  seen  bright  little  Brahman 
girls  carrying  upon  their  person  the  combined  glitter- 


THE   HOME   LIFE   OF   HINDUS  267 

ing  wealth  of  several  families  upon  festive  occasions. 
Add  to  this  again  the  fact  that  there  are  thousands 
of  women  and  children  murdered  in  India  every  year 
for  the  sake  of  these  personal  ornaments  which  they 
flaunt  before  the  public,  and  with  which  they  tempt 
criminals. 

It  is  claimed  that  higher-class  Hindus  are  cleaner 
in  their  personal  habits  than  almost  any  other  people 
on  earth.  This  is  probably  true,  so  far  as  a  multi- 
plicity of  ablutions  can  make  them.  The  religious 
washings  of  the  Brahman  are  so  frequent  as  to  make 
him  largely  immune  to  epidemics  of  cholera  and  other 
filth  diseases.  And  yet  the  lower  classes  of  the 
people,  in  their  homes  and  elsewhere,  have  little  to 
boast  of  in  the  line  of  cleanliness.  They  all  aspire 
to  the  weekly  oil -bath,  which  is  doubtless  a  whole- 
some thing  in  the  heat  of  these  tropics,  where,  through 
paucity  of  clothing,  the  skin  is  much  exposed  to  the 
sun's  rays.  But  oil  has  well-known  attractive  powers 
for  dust,  filth,  and  vermin  too ! 

It   must  also   be   remembered  that  the  Hindu  is* 
given  much  more  to  seeking  ceremonial  than  sanitary 
cleanliness.     It  matters  not  how  filthy  the  water  may 
be,  chemically ;  if  it  be  ceremonially  clean,  he  uses  it 
freely.     If  it  be  ceremonially  polluting,  it  is  eschewed, 


268  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

As  one  sees  a  village  community  make  all  possible 
uses  of  the  village  pond,  he  wonders  why  the  whole 
village  has  not  been  swept  away  by  disease.  They 
are  saved  from  their  folly,  doubtless,  by  the  piercing, 
cleansing  rays  of  the  tropical__siiiL— 

Hindu  clothing  is  both  beautiful  and  admirably 
suited  to  the  tropical  climate.  The  one  cloth  of  the 
Hindu  woman,  which  she  so  deftly  winds  around  her 
body,  and  which  is  usually  of  bright  colours,  is  per- 
haps the  most  exquisitely  beautiful  garment  worn  by 
any  people.  And  this  is  altogether  adequate  to  her 
needs.  Unfortunately,  western  habits  are  now  com- 
ing into  vogue,  and,  in  the  case  of  men  and  women 
alike,  the  clothing  of  the  West  is  partially  supplanting 
that  of  the  East.  Nothing  could  be  more  unfortunate, 
from  the  standpoint  of  health,  beauty,  and  economy. 

The  culinary  arrangements  and  the  cuisine  of  the 
Hindu  home  are  somewhat  elaborate.  Well-to-do 
Hindus,  notwithstanding  many  caste  restrictions,  are 
somewhat  epicurean  in  their  tastes,  and  live  well.  As 
we  have  seen  in  the  chapter  on  Caste,  there  are  many 
limitations  placed  upon  the  selection  of  food,  the 
method  of  its  preparation,  and  of  eating.  Meat  is 
entirely  banned  by  the  highest  castes.  None  will 
touch  the  meat  of  the  bovine  -kind,  save  the  outcast 


THE   HOME   LIFE  OF   HINDUS  269 

Pariah.  All  are  very  particular  in  seeking  seclusion 
for  their  meals.  This  is  perhaps  the  reason  why  the 
Hindu  home  is,  generally  speaking,  so  much  more 
secluded  than  that  of  other  people.  Hindus  believe 
that  fingers  were  made  before  knives,  forks,  and 
spoons.  Consequently  they  eat  their  food  entirely 
with  their  fingers.  It  seems  offensive  enough  to 
Westerners.  It  has  often  taken  away  the  writer's 
appetite  as  he  has  feasted  with  them,  to  have  the 
cook  dole  out  his  rice  to  him  with  his  bare  hands ! 
They  eat  entirely  with  their  right  hand,  and  never 
touch  the  food  with  the  left,  reserving  that  hand  for 
baser  purposes. 

In  wealthy  families,  household  duties  are  performed 
by  many  servants.  It  is  amusing  to  see  how  many 
servants  are  required  in  India  to  perform  the  ordinary 
functions  of  one  able-bodied  servant  in  the  West. 
The  services  which  a  Hindu  will  demand  from  his 
menials  are  far  greater  than  those  of  a  healthy  West- 
erner. His  languid  nature  and  general  effeminacy 
make  him  entirely  dependent  upon  his  servant  for 
most  of  the  activities  and  amenities  of  life.  Recently 
the  writer  heard  a  Hindu  companion  in  a  railway  car 
call  his  servant  at  night  from  an  adjoining  car  to  come 
and  turn  the  shade  over  the  compartment  lamp  that 


270  INDIA:    ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

he  might  have  a  nap !  A  well-known  writer,  in  de- 
scribing the  life  of  a  Babu,  says:  "The  Khansama  of 
a  Babu  is  his  most  favourite  servant.  From  the  na- 
ture of  his  office  he  comes  into  closest  contact  with 
his  master;  he  rubs  his  body  with  oil  before  bathing, 
and  sometimes  shampoos  him,  —  a  practice  which 
gradually  induces  idle,  effeminate  habits  and  eventually 
greatly  incapacitates  a  man  for  the  duties  of  an  active  life. 
Indeed,  to  study  the  nature  of  a  'big  native  swell' 
is  to  study  the  character  of  a  consummate  Oriental 
epicure,  immersed  in  a  ceaseless  round  of  pleasures, 
and  hedged  in  by  a  body  of  unconscionable  fellows, 
distinguished  only  for  their  flattery  and  servility." 
During  times  of  sickness,  the  native  doctor  is  in 
requisition.  This  functionary  is  not  without  his  merits ; 
for  it  is  a  hereditary  profession,  and  not  a  little  medi- 
cal wisdom  and  experience  have  been  transmitted  from 
father  to  son  down  the  centuries.  Nevertheless,  as 
compared  with  modern  science,  the  ignorance  of  these 
men  is  woful,  and  the  unnecessary  loss  of  life  through 
that  ignorance  is  lamentable.  Their  pharmacy  is  as 
defective  as  many  of  their  remedies  are  absurd  and 
disgusting.  The  present  government,  by  multiplying 
its  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  has  done  much  to  arrest 
disease  and  remove  suffering.  And  yet  the  remedies 


THE  HOME   LIFE  OF  HINDUS  271 

do  not  reach  one-tenth  of  the  population.  And  many 
of  the  one-tenth  are  so  suspicious  of  western  science 
that  in  their  extremity  they  will  pass  the  well-equipped 
government  hospital  and  its  diplomaed  attendants  in 
order  to  consult  the  native  doctor  and  to  partake  of 
his  concoctions.  One  of  the  reasons  for  this  prejudice 
is  the  largeness  of  the  dose  which  the  Indian  doctor 
invariably  supplies.  How  can  the  diminutive  doses 
of  the  white  man  and  his  establishment  remove  im- 
portant difficulties  and  heal  serious  diseases?  The 
writer  has  known  not  a  few  well-educated  Indian 
Christians  living  under  the  shadow  of  a  well-equipped 
missionary  hospital  which  furnished  its  medicines  free, 
sneak  away  a  few  streets  beyond  to  consult  the  man 
who  is  a  compound  of  a  quack  and  an  astrologer. 
And  yet,  doubtless,  the  new  pharmacy  of  the  West 
brings  healing  in  its  wings  to  millions  of  this  people 
annually;  and  it  is  one  of  the  causes  for  the  rapid 
increase  of  the  population. 

At  childbirth,  the  barber's  wife  is  always  called. 
She  is  the  midwife  of  India,  and  the  poor  Hindu  wife 
who  is  about  to  become  a  mother  is  the  victim  of  the 
ignorance  and  stupidity  of  this  woman.  It  is  no  won- 
der that  so  many  die  in  childbirth  or  survive  only 
to  become  invalids  through  the  remainder  of  their 


272  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 


lives.  To  remove  this  serious  evil,  government  is  put- 
ting forth  strenuous  efforts  to  bring  intelligent  relief 
to  the  mothers  of  India. 

The  entrance  of  death  into  a  Hindu  family  brings, 
as  elsewhere,  inexpressible  sorrow.  The  women  of 
the  family  resign  themselves  to  their  grief,  which  is 
expressed  by  loud  wailings,  with  beating  of  their 
breast  and  tearing  their  dishevelled  hair.  While  pro- 
fessional wailers  are  rare,  nevertheless  friends  and 
relatives  congregate  and  add  volume  to  the  dirge  of 
sorrow.  The  leading  women  mourners  will  often  ex- 
press in  weird  chant  and  appropriate  words  their 
praises  of  the  virtues  and  the  beauties  of  the  departed 
ones.  The  men  of  the  household  mourn  in  silence,  as 
it  is  not  fitting  that  the  man  should  audibly  express 
his  sorrow  in  public. 

Hindus  make  immediate  arrangements  for  burning 
or  burial  as  soon  as  death  has  occurred;  so  that, 
usually,  the  funeral  services  are  over  within  twelve  or 
eighteen  hours  after  death.  This  is  desirable,  because 
of  the  Hindu  custom  of  fasting  so  long  as  a  corpse 
remains  in  the  house ;  and  is  also  necessary  because 
of  the  speedy  decomposition  of  the  body  in  the  tropics. 
It  is  also  made  possible  by  the  fact  that  Hindus  do 
not  use  coffins. 


THE   HOME   LIFE  OF  HINDUS  273 

It  is  the  custom  of  most  of  the  higher-caste  Hindus 
to  cremate  their  dead ;  while  many  of  the  lowest 
castes  and  outcasts  resort  to  burial.  Cremation  would 
doubtless  be  the  more  sanitary  method,  if  the  fire  were 
not  so  inadequate  in  many  instances.  The  Hindu 
burning-ground  is  a  place  of  ghastly  and  disgusting 
interest. 

Funeral  ceremonies  do  not  terminate  with  the  burn- 
ing or  with  the  burial  of  the  body  in  Hinduism.  The 
ritual  connected  with  the  dead,  which  is  called 
Skradda,  is,  among  the  higher  classes,  a  most  elabo- 
rate and  complicated  one,  and  lasts,  with  intermis- 
sions, for  a  year.  These  are  conducted  with  much 
effort  by,  and  at  great  expense  to,  the  oldest  son  of  the 
family.  And  a  great  significance  is  attached  to  their 
rigid  performance.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  part  of 
the  great  ancestral  worship  of  the  East. 

The  function  of  this  ceremony  is  also  kindred  to 
that  of  Roman  Catholicism,  which,  through  prayer  and 
offerings,  seeks  the  release  of  souls  from  Purgatory. 
By  this  ritual,  which  involves  also  gifts  to  Brahmans 
and  priests,  the  son  makes  more  easy  the  pathway  of 
the  departed  parent  through  the  shades  into  the  realms 
beyond,  and  relieves  the  departed  soul  of  its  encum- 
brances and  facilitates  its  progress  toward  bliss.  By 

T 


274  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

some  it  is  claimed  that  these  ceremonies,  when  rightly 
performed,  render  unnecessary  his  suffering  in  hell  or 
his  returning  to  this  world  for  rebirth.  It  is  more 
likely  that  the  purpose  is  to  reduce  the  suffering  and 
to  enhance  the  progress  of  the  soul  between  this  birth 
and  the  next.  In  any  case,  all  orthodox  Hindus 
regard  the  Shradda  ceremonies  as  possessing  great 
virtue  and  high  importance.  And  this  is  one  of  the 
principal  reasons  why  every  Hindu  man  and  woman 
is  so  eager  for  the  birth  of  a  son  in  their  family. 
Without  a  son,  who  is  there  to  relieve  their  soul  from 
destruction,  and  to  bring  to  them  future  peace  and 
rest  through  the  Shradda  ceremony?  Thus  parents 
ever  pray  for  male  offspring ;  and  the  greatest  disap- 
pointment in  the  life  of  a  Hindu  woman  is  not  to 
be  able  to  present  her  lord  a  son  to  solace  him  in 
this  life  and  to  assist  him  through  the  valley  of  death. 
One  of  the  questions  asked  by  the  dutiful  son,  as  he 
performs  this  laborious  ritual,  is, — 

"O  my  father,  my  grandfather,  my  great-grandfather ! 
Are  you  satisfied  ?    Are  you  satisfied  ?    We  are  satisfied." 

If  any  son,  by  the  dutiful  performance  of  offering 
and  ritual  here  upon  earth,  can  bring  help  and  peace 
to  his  dead  ancestors,  the  Hindu  son  may  be  expected 
to  succeed. 


THE   HOME   LIFE  OF   HINDUS  275 

The  following,  taken  from  an  ancient  Sutra,  is  re- 
garded as  a  Hindu  burial  hymn  : — 

"  Open  thy  arms,  O  earth  1  receive  the  dead 
With  gentle  pressure  and  with  loving  welcome. 
Enshroud  him  tenderly,  even  as  a  mother 
Folds  her  soft  vestment  round  the  child  she  loves. 
Soul  of  the  dead,  depart !  take  thou  the  path  — 
The  ancient  path  by  which  our  ancestors 
Have  gone  before  thee ;  thou  shalt  look  upon 
The  two  kings,  mighty  Varuna  and  Yama, 
Delighting  in  oblations  ;  thou  shalt  meet 
The  fathers  and  receive  the  recompense 
Of  all  thy  stored-up  offerings  above. 
Leave  thou  thy  sin  and  imperfection  here ; 
Return  unto  thy  home  once  more ;  assume 
A  glorious  form." 


CHAPTER   X 

KALI  YUGA  —  INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  * 

MANY  nations,  during  the  period  of  their  infancy 
and  ignorance,  have  given  to  Time  and  its  divisions 
the  power  and  qualities  of  life  and  have  clothed  them 
with  moral  purpose  and  attributes.  Chronos  was  to 
the  Greeks  of  old  the  god  of  time,  in  whose  hands 
were  the  destinies  of  men.  Even  up  to  the  present 
day  not  a  few  ignorant  people  of  Christian  lands  are 
influenced,  to  some  extent,  by  an  inherited  superstition 
about  "lucky"  and  "  unlucky"  days.  But  I  know  of 
no  land  which  is  suffering  more  than  India  from  tra- 
ditional, false,  and  injurious  conceptions  of  chronol- 
ogy. Time  is  here  endowed  with  life  and  enthroned 
among  the  gods.  Sivan  is  "  Maha-Kalan?  the  great 
incarnation  of  Time,  and  the  mighty  destroyer  of  all 
things.  It  is  also  said  that  "Time  is  a  form  of 
Vishnu." 

We  are  told  that  we  are  living  in  Kali yuga,  and 
that  we  are  subject  to  all  the  evil  which  is  the  per- 
manent characteristic  of  this  iron  age.  I  believe  that 

1  This  chapter  is  a  modified  form  of  a  lecture  delivered  to  Hindus. 

276 


KALI  YUGA  — INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  277 

there  are  few  things  in  India  which  so  thoroughly 
influence  the  life,  habits,  and  character  of  the  people 

as  do  their  many  conceptions  about  chronology.    And 

/ 
I  am  convinced  that  incalculable  good  would  come  to 

the  country  if  all  these  old  and  exploded  ideas  were 
to  give  way  to  more  rational  ones  —  such  as  are  in 
harmony  with  modern  intelligence  and  civilization. 

Consider,  then,  the  various  aspects  of  the  chronology 
which  all  but  universally  prevails  in  India  in  order  that 
we  may  see  wherein  it  touches  the  life  and  moulds  the 
thought  of  educated  and  uneducated  alike. 

I 

The  Astounding  Length  of  the  Chronological 
System 

In  ancient  Vedic  times  there  obtained  here,  so 
far  as  we  can  see,  much  more  sober  views  of  chro- 
nology than  at  present.  It  was  much  later  that  the 
imagination  of  Hindu  writers  took  full  wing  and 
carried  the  people  into  the  all  but  infinite  reaches  of 
Puranic  chronology.  One  must  wait  for  the  elabora- 
tion of  Vishnu  Purana,  for  instance,  in  order  to  meet 
that  apparent  sobriety  of  mathematical  detail  which  is 
utilized  to  add  credibility  to  the  most  fantastic  time 
system  that  imagination  ever  devised. 


278  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Christians  of  the  West  have  doubtless  erred  on  the 
side  of  excessive  brevity  in  their  theories  and  beliefs 
about  the  beginnings  of  history  and  especially  in  their 
attempt  to  locate  the  origin  of  the  human  race.  Until 
recently,  it  was  thought  that  our  human  progenitor, 
Adam,  was  created  no  more  than  sixty  centuries  ago, 
and  that  the  whole  history  of  mankind  is  consequently 
confined  to  that  brief  space  of  time.  In  the  same  way 
the  practical  mind  of  the  West  has  pictured  to  itself 
the  termination  of  human  life  and  history  upon  earth 
at  some  not  very  remote  date  in  the  future.  Science 
has  already  shown  the  error  of  the  former,  as  history 
is  likely  to  demonstrate  the  falsity  of  the  latter  theory. 

But  India  has,  with  much  greater  daring  and  with 
more  of  unreason,  carried  back  many  billions  of  years 
the  origin  of  mankind  and  has  painted  vividly  a  future 
whose  expanse  is  as  the  boundless  sea. 

We  are  now,  it  is  said,  at  the  close  of  the  first 
five  thousand  years  of  Kali  yuga.  And  this  same 
yuga,  or  epoch,  has  427,000  years  still  in  store  for 
us  and  our  descendants !  Before  it  arrived,  the  other 
three  yugas  —  Kritha,  Tretha,  and  Dwapara  —  had 
passed  on ;  and  these,  together,  were  equal  to  more 
than  ten  thousand  divine  years,  or  to  nearly  four 
million  human  years !  These  four  epochs  equal  a 


KALI  YUGA  — INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  279 

total  of  4,320,000  human  years,  and  this  is  called  a 
"  maha-yuga?  This  in  itself  would  stagger  the  prac- 
tical mind  of  the  West.  But  it  is  only  the  very  thresh- 
old of  Hindu  chronology !  There  are  seventy-one  of 
these  great  epochs  in  a " Manuvanthara" or  the  period 
of  one  Manu,  or  human  progenitor.  And  there  are 
many  of  these  Manus  with  their  periods.  For  instance, 
there  are  fourteen  of  them  required  in  order  to  cover 
the  time  called  "  Karpa?  or  one  day  in  the  life  of 
Brahma.  And  after  Brahma  has  spent  his  modest 
day  everything  is  destroyed  and  his  godship  spends 
an  equal  period  in  sleep  and  rest.  Then  begins 
another  Brahmaic  day,  in  which  a  new  succession  of 
Manus  spend,  with  their  progeny,  their  interminable 
epochs.  And  thus  one  series  of  epochs  follows  an- 
other, sandwiched  in  by  equally  long  spaces  of  lifeless 
darkness.  And  this  goes  on  until  Brahma  has  com- 
pleted his  divine  life  of  one  hundred  years ;  and  then 
comes  the  final  dissolution.  Having  gone  on  as  far 
as  this,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  imagination  should 
rest  at  this  point ;  and  so  Vishnu  Purana^  which,  of 
course,  is  composed  in  praise  of  that  god,  claims  that 
one  day  of  Vishnu  is  equal  to  the  whole  life  of 
Brahma ! 

No  one  can  bring  within  the  range  of  his  thought 


28o  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

or  imagination  one  tithe  of  the  years,  divine  or  human, 
which  are  included  in  this  marvellous  chronology. 
A  billion  years  are  but  as  a  day  to  the  Hindu  mind. 

And  if  any  one  is  anxious  to  know  the  exact  place 
at  which  we  have  arrived  in  this  chronological  maze, 
the  same  Purana  informs  us  that  we  are  five  thousand 
years  advanced  in  the  Kali yuga  of  "  Varaha karpa" or 
the  first  day  in  the  second  half  of  Brahma's  life.  And 
thus  we  are  supposed  to  live  not  far  (say  a  few  billion 
years!)  from  the  middle  of  the  Hindu  chronological 
system.  One  may  better  realize  the  length  of  the 
system  if  he  remembers  that  we  have  yet  to  spend 
of  the  present  Kali  yuga  alone  more  than  seventy 
times  the  whole  of  the  old  Christian  chronology  from 
Adam  to  the  present  time !  And  yet,  as  compared 
with  the  whole  system  described  above,  Kali  yuga  is 
less  than  one  day  in  a  thousand  years.  And  that 
largely  measures  the  difference  between  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  West  and  the  same  developed  faculty  in 
the  East! 

It  is  quite  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  prehistoric 
Manus  of  previous  yugas  are  absolutely  imaginary 
creatures,  since  history  can  tell  us  practically  noth- 
ing about  the  head  of  our  race,  even  in  the  present 
Hindu  dispensation.  There  is  not  a  line  of  history 


KALI  YUGA  — INDIA'S   PESSIMISM  281 

or  of  reliable  tradition  that  will  enable  us  to  reach 
farther  back  than  five  or  six  thousand  years  in  this 
quest  for  the  origin  of  our  race.  There  was,  of 
course,  a  beginning  of  human  life  on  earth;  and  we 
may,  just  as  we  please,  call  the  progenitor  "  Manu " 
or  "Adam."  But,  according  to  the  Hindu  chrono- 
logical system,  six  thousand  years  only  carries  us 
just  back  into  the  last  yuga,  and  is  as  but  yesterday 
in  the  march  of  the  divine  aeons  of  the  past.  Cer- 
tainly, writers  whose  productions  are  unreliable  as 
a  guide  to  the  events  of  the  past  century  or  two  are 
only  indenting  upon  their  imagination  when  they 
descant  upon  the  chronological  data  of  the  Puranas. 

One  of  the  principal  evils  connected  with  this 
measureless  time  system  is  found  in  the  fact  that  it 
helps  to  destroy  the  confidence  of  all  intelligent 
men  in  the  historicity  of  characters  and  events 
which  would  otherwise  be  worthy  of  our  credence. 
For  example,  the  question  is  asked  whether  such  a 
man  as  Rama  Chandra  ever  existed.  We  at  once 
reply  in  the  affirmative;  for  does  not  the  Ramayana 
dwell  upon  his  exploits,  and  are  there  not  other 
reasons  for  believing  that  such  a  hero  lived  in  an- 
cient times  in  this  land? 

And  yet  when  the  Puranas  tell  us  that  this  same 


282  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Rama  received  his  apotheosis  and  appeared  as  an 
incarnation  of  Vishnu  in  the  Tretha  yuga,  say  one 
or  two  millions  of  years  ago,  we  are  astounded  at 
the  credulity  of  those  who  could  write  such  a  state- 
ment as  well  as  those  who  can  accept  it;  and  we 
are  led  to  question  whether,  after  all,  Rama  ever 
existed  or  is  simply  a  poetic  conception  carried  far 
away  into  an  imaginary  time.  Thus  the  chronol- 
ogy of  the  land  tends  to  cast  a  cloud  of  doubt  and 
suspicion  over  all  that  is  historical,  traditional,  or 
legendary  in  the  literature  of  the  people. 

Still  greater  than  this  is  the  unfortunate  influence 
of  such  a  system  upon  the  people  themselves,  in 
helping  to  destroy  any  appreciation  that  they  would 
otherwise  have  of  historic  perspective.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  people  of  India  have  throughout 
the  ages  been  the  most  wanting  in  the  ability  to 
write  and  soberly  to  appreciate  historic  facts. 

They  are  great  thinkers  and  wonderful  metaphy- 
sicians, but  they  are  not  historians.  The  meagre 
history  of  India  which  has  come  down  to  us  was 
not  written  by  the  people  themselves.  Not  until 
recently,  and  then  under  the  influence  of  western 
training,  did  any  reliable  book  of  history  emanate 
from  the  brain  and  hand  of  a  native  of  this  land. 


KALI  YUGA  — INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  283 

All  that  we  know  of  the  ancient  history  of  India 
comes  to  us  in  two  ways.  It  is  known  indirectly 
through  the  language  and  literature  and  ancient  in- 
scriptions of  the  past.  Historians  of  to-day  have  to 
study  the  science  of  language,  and  especially  the 
growth  of  the  Sanscrit  tongue ;  and,  through  an  in- 
timate knowledge  of  the  same,  they  arrive  approxi- 
mately at  the  time  in  which  many  of  the  most 
important  books  of  the  land  have  been  written  and 
at  the  dates  of  the  events  narrated  in  them.  Or 
they  may  be  helped,  to  some  extent,  to  learn  this 
history  by  a  study  of  the  teachings  of  the  books 
themselves,  which  may  indicate  the  time  in  which 
they  were  written.  A  few  inscriptions  and  coins 
give  the  dates  of  certain  reigns,  which  thus  bring 
us  directly  and  briefly  into  the  correct  era  of  cer- 
tain important  events. 

But  the  bulk  of  the  history  of  India  comes 
through  foreigners.  At  different  periods  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  land  men  of  other  nationalities  visited 
India  and  then  recorded  their  observations  concern- 
ing the  country  and  the  people.  The  Greeks  were 
great  travellers  and  keen  observers  in  ancient  times. 
They  came  to  India  and  left  in  their  books  such 
statements  about  the  land  as  assist  us  to  understand 


284  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE   AND  THOUGHT 

its  condition  at  that  period.  Then  the  Chinese,  in 
the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  visited  this 
land  and  recorded  in  their  works  much  of  interest 
about  the  social  and  religious  condition  of  the 
people.  Later,  the  Mohammedan  conquest  brought 
many  foreigners  into  India,  and  some  of  the  writers 
of  Islam  give  us  further  insight  into  the  affairs  of 
the  country.  From  the  fifteenth  century  the  Rom- 
ish missionaries  have  conveyed,  through  their  re- 
ports to  Rome,  much  of  information  concerning  the 
people  and  their  life.  And  thus  the  history  of  India 
has  largely  depended  upon  the  keen  and  careful  ob- 
servations and  statements  of  men  of  other  lands 
who  came  here  for  travel,  trade,  or  religion.  But 
Indians  themselves  have,  at  no  time,  contributed  to 
this  most  important  department  of  literature.  We 
may  search  in  vain  for  even  one  volume  of  reliable 
history  out  of  the  myriad  tomes  of  embellished  nar- 
ratives which  have,  emanated  from  the  fertile  brains 
of  the  men  of  India.  How  shall  we  account  for 
this  strange  and  very  striking  fact  ?  It  must  be,  in 
part,  owing  to  the  innate  passion  of  India  at  all 
times  for  poetic  embellishment  and  exaggeration. 
A  cool,  scientific,  unadorned  statement  of  a  fact  or 
of  an  event  has  never  satisfied  the  soul  of  the  chil- 


KALI  YUGA  — INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  285 

dren  of  the  tropics.  Hence,  the  history  of  the  past 
becomes  legend,  human  heroes  are  painted  as  di- 
vine, and  epochs  and  eras  are  lengthened  out  to 
almost  eternal  proportions. 

Now  the  most  serious  result  of  all  this  is  that  the 
people  have  come  firmly  to  believe  that  these  wild 
exaggerations,  which  were  written  by  some  dreamy 
poets  of  the  past,  are  the  sane  and  cool  expressions 
of  simple  historic  fact;  and  thus  they  have  largely 
lost  the  true  sense  of  historic  perspective,  are  un- 
able to  distinguish  between  fact  and  fancy,  and  are 
strangers  to  the  lessons  of  the  past.  For  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  teachings  of  former  ages, 
and  especially  the  life-lessons  and  character-influ- 
ences of  those  generations  of  men,  have  less  and 
less  of  significance  to  us  the  farther  we  throw  them 
back  into  the  dim  and  hazy  realm  of  the  prehistoric 
and  legendary.  The  near  past,  with  its  familiar 
voices  and  its  heroes  of  real  flesh  and  blood,  brings 
to  us  an  appeal  to  life  and  noble  endeavour  to 
which  we  are  always  glad  to  respond;  while  the 
remote  characters  of  myth  and  of  legend  neither  im- 
press us  with  their  reality  nor  inspire  us  to  a  higher 
and  better  life. 

And,  in  the  same  way,  these  immensely  drawn-out 


286  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

aeons  of  the  past  make  it  impossible  for  those  who 
believe  in  them  rightly  to  appreciate  the  signifi- 
cance and  importance  of  the  present.  One's  pres- 
ence in  the  world  and  the  value  of  his  best  activity 
for  the  world's  good  can  mean  something  to  him  if 
he  appreciate  the  fact  that  there  is  no  great  dis- 
tance to  the  very  beginning  of  human  history. 
Though  his  span  of  life  is  small,  it  nevertheless 
has  a  definite  relationship  to  the  whole  of  history, 
and  there  is  some  encouragement  for  a  man  to 
work  for  the  good  of  his  race.  But  this  encourage- 
ment dwindles  into  nothingness  when  a  man  believes 
in  those  many  aeons  of  human  life,  each  aeon  being 
in  itself  an  immense  reach  of  billions  of  years. 

II 

The  Cyclic  Character  of  Hindu  Chronology 

A  very  unique  thing  about  this  chronology  is  that 
it  revolves  in  cycles.  Each  maha-yuga  is  composed 
of  four  yugas,  and  these  are  ever  the  same  series 
and  of  the  same  character.  We  pass  on  through 
the  long  vista  of  Kritha,  Tretha,  Dwapara,  and 
Kali  only  to  begin  once  more  on  the  same  series; 
and  thus  forever  we  move  im^'lhis  four-arc  circle 
without  ever  getting  outside  of  it.  It  is  claimed 


KALI  YUGA  — INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  287 

that  this  cycle  of  yugas  has  already  revolved  about 
twenty  million  times  and  will  go  on  spinning  twenty 
million  times  more,  attaining  nothing  and  going  no- 
where. It  is  enough  to  make  one  dizzy  to  think  of 
this  mighty  chronological  wheel,  spending  4,320,000 
years  for  every  one  of  its  forty  million  revolutions, 
with  nothing  to  vary  the  monotony  of  these  ever 
recurring  epochs ! 

The  first  question  which  one  would  naturally  ask, 
after  assuming  the  truth  of  this  breathlessly  long 
system,  is  whether  it  could  forever  return  upon  itself 
after  this  fashion.  Is  there  no  progress  in  time?  Is 
it  true,  in  this  sense  also,  that  "  there  is  nothing  new 
under  the  sun  "  ?  While  other  people  are  refreshed 
by  the  sense  that  they  are  moving  forward  and  up- 
ward in  the  fulfilment  of  some  great  destiny,  are  ever 
adding  new  increments  to  their  wisdom,  and  are  ris- 
ing higher  upon  "  their  dead  selves  "  to  ever  nobler 
achievements,  is  it  right  that  the  people  of  this  great 
land  should  be  doomed  to  think  that  there  is  no  per- 
manent advance  for  India,  but  that  she  alone  must 
forever  return  whence  she  started  and  repeat  the 
weary  cycle  of  the  past? 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  no  people  can  be  thus  tied 
down  to  any  mechanical  order  of  time.  Every  race 


288  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

and  nation  is  either  making  for  progress  or  for  de- 
generacy. It  will  never  return  to  its  old  moorings. 
The  past  has  told  upon  it.  It  has  accumulated  some 
wealth  of  knowledge,  of  experience,  of  character, 
which,  as  the  centuries  roll,  brings  it  farther  on  in 
its  career.  It  is  true  that  a  nation,  like  a  man,  may 
have  lapses  by  which  it  may  fall  down  a  step  or  more 
in  the  ladder  of  its  upward  progress.  But  this  can- 
not be  a  necessity  of  its  nature  or  a  relentless  law  of 
its  being. 

This  chronological  system  also  accounts  for  much 
of  the  pessimism  that  pervades  the  minds  and  de- 
presses the  heart  of  the  people  of  India  to-day.  It 
is  everywhere  claimed  that  the  best  things  of  India 
were  found  in  the  remote  past.  But,  you  ask,  will 
not  the  Sattia yuga  —  the  golden  age  —  return  again? 
Oh,  yes,  it  is  next  in  the  procession,  we  are  told.  But 
we  must  not  forget  that  there  are  about  427,000  long 
years  before  this  Kali  yuga  comes  to  an  end.  Even 
supposing  that  the  doctrine  of  transmigration  is  true, 
and  that  the  soul  of  man  must  pass  through  many 
reincarnations ;  who  can  be  expected  to  hold  on  to 
courage  and  hope  through  nearly  half  a  million  years 
of  dreary  existence  ?  What  India  sorely  needs  to-day 
is  a  conviction  that  she  is  moving  onward  —  that 


KALI  YUGA— INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  289 

there  is  but  one  yuga  in  her  calendar,  and  that  that 
is  the  yuga  of   opportunity  to  rise  to  higher  things. 
Thus  alone  can  she  be  stimulated  to  her  best  efforts    , 
and  most  worthy  activity. 

In  this  connection  we  must  not  forget  another 
aspect  of  these  changing  and  ever  recurring  ages  of 
the  puranas.  Each  yuga,  maha-yuga,  and  karpa  is 
followed  by  a  period  of  more  or  less  complete  de- 
struction. The  achievements  of  each  period  are  for- 
gotten, because  its  results  are  obliterated  or  consumed 
by  a  mighty  cataclysm.  And  thus  no  gain  acquired 
in  any  past  age  is  available  for  the  coming  epoch. 
In  this  way,  the  whole  idea  of  the  puranic  chronology 
is  the  most  effective  ever  devised  by  man  in  any  land 
to  bring  discouragement  and  despair  into  the  heart 
of  the  people  who  live  under  it.  Whether  we  look 
at  the  absurd  length,  the  discouraging  cycles,  or  the 
destructive  cataclysms  which  are  an  essential  part  of 
the  system,  one  and  all  bring  in  their  train  depres- 
sion, stagnation,  and  the  spirit  of  reckless  waste. 
While  we  recognize  that  this  chronology  is  a  natural 
product  of  the  dreamy,  patient  soul  of  the  East,  the 
most  important  fact  for  us  to  remember  is  that  it  also 
perpetuates  and  accentuates  the  very  evil  which  gave 
it  birth. 


29o  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

III 

The  Moral  Characteristics  of  the  Hindu  Time  System 

This,  doubtless,  is  the  most  striking  feature  of  this 
chronology  and  gives  it  a  larger  influence  than  any 
other  in  the  thoughts  and  life  of  the  people  of  this 
land.  And  I  really  believe  that  it  is  more  deleterious 
in  its  influence  upon  the  Hindu  character  than  any- 
thing else  connected  with  this  system. 

According  to  this  chronology,  in  its  most  elabo- 
rated form,  every  day,  yea,  every  hour  as  well  as 
every  yuga,  or  epoch,  has  its  peculiar  moral  character 
assigned  to  it.  It  is  well  known  that  the  first  era  in 
the  mahayuga  is  called  Sattia  yuga,  or  the  era  of 
truth.  During  this  period  the  cow  of  righteousness 
stands  upon  four  legs,  and  all  living  beings  are  good, 
beautiful,  and  happy.  This  indeed  is  the  golden  age 
of  Hinduism.  But,  alas,  its  last  departure  was  some 
four  million  years  ago,  and  it  will  not  return,  they  say, 
for  nearly  half  a  million  years  more.  Then  it  is  fol- 
lowed by  "the  silver  age,"  in  which  the  cow  is  said 
to  stand  on  three  legs  only !  In  other  words,  virtue 
and  happiness  have  suffered  diminution,  and  evil  and 
misery  have  crept  into  human  life.  If  in  the  previous 
age  asceticism  was  the  crowning  glory,  in  this  second 


KALI  YUGA  —  INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  291 

age  knowledge  is  supreme.  This  is  said  to  be  the 
time  of  Rama's  exploits  and  trials. 

We  then  come  into  the  bronze  era,  the  so-called 
period  of  Krishna's  incarnation  and  "goings."  The 
poor  cow  of  virtue  has  suffered  still  further  limita- 
tions and  has  but  two  legs  to  stand  upon  in  this 
yuga !  This  is  called  the  age  of  sacrifice  —  the  time 
when  sacrifice  has  preeminence  as  a  source  of  power 
in  salvation. 

Then  we  come  down  to  the  iron  age  in  which  we 
have  the  supposed  infelicity  to  live.  This  is  the 
time  of  evil,  par  excellence,  in  which  the  cow  has  been 
reduced  to  the  last  extremity  and  has  to  stand  upon 
one  leg !  The  gradual  deterioration  of  the  ages  finds 
here  its  culmination.  Of  this  fourth  age  there  is  a 
description  in  the  Vishnu-purana,  which  is  translated 
as  follows :  — 

"Hear  what  will  happen  in  the  kali  yuga. 
The  usages  and  institutes  of  caste,"of  order  and  rank, 

will  not  prevail, 

Nor  yet  the  precepts  of  the  triple  Veda. 
Religion  will  consist  in  wasting  wealth, 
In  fasting  and  performing  penances 
At  will;  the  man  who  owns  most  property, 
And  lavishly  distributes  it,  will  gain 
Dominion  over  others;  noble  rank 


292  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Will  give  no  claim  to  lordship ;  self-willed  women 

Will  seek  their  pleasure,  and  ambitious  men 

Fix  all  their  hopes  on  riches  gained  by  fraud. 

The  women  will  be  fickle  and  desert 

Their  beggared  husbands,  loving  them  alone 

Who  give  them  money.     Kings,  instead  of  guarding, 

Will  rob  their  subjects,  and  abstract  the  wealth 

Of  merchants,  under  plea  of  raising  taxes. 

Then  in  the  world's  last  age  the  rights  of  men 

Will  be  confused,  no  property  be  safe, 

No  joy  and  no  prosperity  be  lasting." 

"Women  will  bear  children  at  the  age  of  five,  six, 
or  seven,  and  men  beget  them  when  they  are  eight, 
nine,  or  ten.  Gray  hair  will  appear  when  a  person  is 
but  twelve  years  of  age,  and  the  duration  of  life  for 
men  will  only  be  twenty  years." 

Now  the  idea  in  all  this  is  that  each  yuga,  or  era, 
has  its  fixed  character.  Rather  than  that  the  men 
of  a  yuga  should  impart  their  character  to  the  age  in 
which  they  live,  the  age  itself  has  a  pronounced  moral 
bent  which  is  transferred  to  all  who  happen  to  live 
under  it.  Thus  we  see  in  the  theory  a  perversion 
and  contradiction  of  the  facts ;  for  an  ethical  charac- 
ter is  assigned  to  days  and  hours  rather  than  to  moral 
beings,  who  alone  are  capable  of  such  values. 

Therefore,   for  a   thorough    consideration    of    the 


KALI  YUGA  — INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  293 

system  as  a  whole,  it  is  only  necessary  that  we  con- 
sider the  character  assigned  to  this  evil  age  in  which 
we  live.  There  is  nothing  more  deeply  wrought  into 
the  consciousness  of  the  people  of  this  land  at  the 
present  time  than  the  conviction  that  this  time  in 
which  we  live  is  indeed  Kali  yuga,  that  it  is  irre- 
mediably bad,  and  that  it  taints  with  its  own  character 
everything  that  has  life. 

Pandit  Natesa  Sastri  remarks :  "  In  India  when 
a  young  boy  or  girl  happens  to  break,  in  eating  or 
dress,  the  orthodox  rules  of  caste,  his  or  her  parents 
will  say,  '  Oh !  it  is  all  the  result  of  the  Kali  yuga? 
If  a  Hindu  becomes  a  convert  to  any  other  religion, 
or  if  any  atrocious  act  is  committed,  the  Hindu  will 
observe,  '  Oh !  it  is  the  ripening  of  Kali.'  Every 
deviation  from  the  established  custom,  every  vice, 
every  crime,  in  fact,  everything  wicked,  is  set  down 
by  the  ordinary  Hindu  to  the  ascending  power  of 
the  Lord  of  the  Kali  age." 

Nor  is  this  merely  a  superstition  of  the  ignorant. 
We  remember  how,  in  the  year  1899,  when  it  was 
said  that  great  calamities  were  due,  the  Dewan  of 
Mysore  promised  to  place  the  matter  of  preparing 
for  these  calamities  before  the  Maharajah.  For  was 
it  not  the  five  thousandth  year  of  Kali  yuga  ? 


a94  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Now  it  does  not  occur  to  one  in  ten  thousand  to 
ask  whether  this  is  really  so.  It  is  accepted  as  a 
dogma  which  must  not  be  questioned;  and  all  the 
evil  and  falsehood  which  this  involves  must  be  a 
dread  of  the  soul  and  a  bondage  of  the  mind  whether 
it  become  a  fact  of  experience  or  not. 

But,  accepting  the  universally  received  belief  of 
India  that  Kali  yuga  is  now  five  thousand  and  eight 
years  old,  who  can  tell  us  what  was  the  condition  of 
things  in  India  before  this  ?  Everything  before  that 
time  is  absolutely  prehistoric.  The  best  authorities, 
and  indeed  all  authorities,  claim  that  the  Vedas  were 
first  sung,  that  the  Rishis  of  India  came  into  exist- 
ence, that  the  Sanscrit  tongue  and  the  Indian  Aryans 
who  spoke  it  and  the  religion  of  Hinduism  which 
they  brought  or  cultivated,  —  all  of  these  find  their 
origin  during  the  last  five  thousand  years.  All  the 
evidences  of  history  unite  to  assure  us  that  there  is 
practically  nothing  existing  at  the  present  time  in 
this  land  which  is  not  in  some  way  the  child  of 
these  last  fifty  centuries  of  Kali  yuga.  Who,  then, 
can  dogmatically  tell  us  that  these  centuries  have 
been  better  or  worse  than  the  eras  preceding  them  ? 
We  know  no  more  about  the  Dwapara  and  the  other 
previous  eras,  if  any  such  ever  existed,  than  we  know 


KALI  YUGA  — INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  295 

about  the  inhabitants  of  other  planets,  if  such  there 
be.  It  is  therefore  futile,  yea  more,  thoroughly 
wicked,  to  impose  upon  the  people  a  chronological 
system  which  is  so  pessimistic  and  hopeless  in  its 
tenor  as  this. 

But  even  looking  back  through  the  probably  four 
thousand  years  which  embrace  all  that  we  really 
know  about  India,  what  do  we  see  to  encourage  this 
pessimistic  view  of  our  era  ? 

Let  it  not  be  assumed  that  the  people  of  India 
in  the  days  of  the  Rishis  of  old  were  purer  in  life 
or  loftier  in  ideals  than  many  who  live  in  India 
to-day.  It  is  true  that  such  evils  as  caste,  infant 
marriage,  and  many  similar  customs  did  not  exist 
at  all  in  Vedic  days.  But  it  is  also  true  that  not  a 
few  serious  evils  of  ancient  times,  such  as  drunken- 
ness, human  sacrifice,  and  slavery,  do  not  generally 
exist  in  India  to-day. 

But  if  we  desire  to  know  what  the  condition  of 
the  present  time  is,  we  should  compare  this  begin- 
ning of  the  twentieth  with  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  and  see  what  progress  has  been 
achieved.  During  the  last  two  centuries  number- 
less crimes  and  evils  have  been  swept  away.  I  need 
only  mention  such  enormities  as  thuggee,  sattee,  infant 


296  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

murder,  etc.,  all  of  which  were  thriving  even  a 
hundred  years  ago,  but  which  are  now  things  of 
the  past.  And  what  shall  I  say  of  a  horde  of 
other  customs  that  have  cursed  the  land,  such  as 
infant  marriage,  thevathasis,  caste,  all  of  which  are 
beginning  to  yield  to  the  enlightened  thought  of  the 
present  and  will  soon  be  driven  out  of  the  country  ? 

I  need  not  add,  however,  that  all  of  these  wonder- 
ful changes  and  progress  have  not  come  out  of 
Hinduism.  They  have  been  carried  out  and  are 
progressing  in  the  teeth  of  constant  opposition  from 
the  orthodox  defenders  of  the  ancestral  faith.  It 
is  the  new  light  of  the  West  that  has  dawned  upon 
India  and  has  brought  to  it  a  new  era.  Even  while 
the  people  are  insisting  that  they  are  in  the  midst 
of  Kali  yuga  and  are  confident  that  the  days  are 
"  out  of  joint,"  they  are  nevertheless  witnessing  such 
a  revolution  in  religious,  social,  and  intellectual  life 
all  around  them  that  any  people  who  were  not 
under  the  blind  spell  of  the  Hindu  time-fallacy 
would  rejoice  with  exceeding  joy  to  see  it. 

And  herein  do  we  find  one  of  the  great  evils 
of  this  chronology :  It  incapacitates  the  people  to 
accept  or  to  appreciate  any  blessing  which  has  or 
may  come  to  them  through  religious  and  social 


KALI  YUGA  — INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  297 

advancement.  They  think  that  everything  must  be 
bad,  as  a  matter  of  course,  in  Kali  yuga,  and  so 
nothing  can  appear  good  to  them,  however  benefi- 
cent and  beautiful  it  may  be. 

This  conviction  that  things  are  now  out  of  joint, 
and  the  settled  purpose  that  all  will  continue  an 
unmixed  programme  of  evil,  has  more  to  do  with 
the  sad  and  universal  pessimism  of  India  than  any- 
thing else  of  which  I  know.  It  crushes  all  buoyancy 
and  cheer  out  of  the  mind  and  rests  like  a  pall  upon 
every  future  prospect. 

Then  this  expectation  for  the  future  robs  men  of 
any  ambition  to  remedy  present  evils.  For,  they 
naturally  will  say,  "  Why  flee  from  ills  which  are 
pressing  upon  us  and  which  by  experience  we  have 
learned  to  endure,  if  it  be  only  to  contract  greater 
troubles  in  their  stead ;  for  freedom  from  evil  is  an 
impossibility  in  this  age  ?  "  Is  it  not,  to  a  very  con- 
siderable extent,  the  reason  why  there  are  so  few 
whole-hearted  reformers  in  India?  Why  should  a 
man  seek,  at  the  risk  of  opprobrium  and  enmity,  to 
root  out  of  the  country  some  accursed  custom  if  his 
inherited  belief  in  the  inherent  badness  of  the  present 
era  is  still  with  him  ?  He  must  feel  that  all  his  efforts 
will  be  worse  than  vain ;  for  even  if  he  and  others  may 


298  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

succeed  in  overcoming  this  custom,  it  will  be  only  to 
give  room  to  another  that  may  be  worse.  Hence  the 
universal  apathy  in  the  face  of  crying  evils  and  damning 
customs ;  hence  also  the  helpless  "  cui  bono  ?  "  to  every 
effort  of  others  to  help  the  land  out  of  the  deep  pits  of 
injustice  and  ancient  ills. 

Out  of  this  belief  comes  another  equally  portentous 
danger,  viz.  that  of  easily  yielding  to  the  temptations 
of  the  time,  and  of  a  readiness  to  participate  in  the 
common  sins  of  the  day.  For,  say  many,  are  not  these 
immoralities  and  evils  an  integral  part  of  the  time; 
and,  if  so,  what  harm  is  there  in  our  partaking  of  them  ? 
Or,  at  least,  is  it  not  our  best  interest  to  harmonize 
ourselves  with  the  essentially  evil  environment  of  our 
age  rather  than  vainly  to  combat  the  sins  of  the  day 
and  to  strive  to  no  purpose  to  remove  them  ? 

And  thus  a  belief  in  the  divine  order  and  purpose  of 
the  evil  of  our  time  and  in  the  impossibility  of  chang- 
ing the  character  of  our  age  becomes  one  of  the  most 
prolific  sources  of  sin,  of  weakness,  and  of  moral  and 
spiritual  apathy  in  the  land  to-day.  Do  not  many  sin 
without  fear  and  with  increasing  facility  because  they 
think  it  is  the  only  life  that  best  harmonizes  with  this 
Kali yuga  in  which  they  live  ? 

Much  of  this  conception  of  time  is  connected  with 


KALI  YUGA  — INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  299 

the  all  but  universal  belief  of  the  people  in  astrology. 
In  India,  astrology  is  still  fed  by  popular  ignorance  and 
superstition,  and  continues  to  rule  with  an  iron  rod  in 
this  last  stronghold  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 
It  would  seem  as  if  it  controlled  the  conduct  of  in- 
dividuals, of  families,  and  of  society  in  general.  It 
claims  that  for  one  to  be  born  under  the  dominant 
influence,  or  spell,  of  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  for 
him  to  be  its  slave  ever  afterwards.  And  thus  the  life 
of  every  human  being  is  said  to  be  largely  controlled 
by  certain  planets  and  constellations,  some  of  which 
are  malign,  and  some  benign  in  their  character  and 
influence. 

For  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  only  the 
yugas  that  are  possessed  of  moral  attributes;  even 
years,  months,  days,  and  hours  are  also  classified  as 
good  and  bad,  auspicious  and  inauspicious.  For  one 
to  do  a  thing  this  month  is  auspicious,  while  on  the 
next  month  it  will  be  the  reverse. 

In  the  same  manner,  almost  every  human  activity 
has  its  "lucky"  and  "unlucky"  times  —  occasions 
when  effort  is  much  less,  or  more  safe  or  valuable,  than 
at  other  times.  For  instance,  the  Hindu  is  warned 
against  going  eastward,  Mondays  and  Saturdays; 
northward,  Tuesdays  and  Wednesdays;  westward, 


300  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Fridays  and  Sundays;  and  southward,  Thursdays. 
This,  we  are  told,  is  because  Siva's  trident,  is  turned 
against  those  points  of  the  compass  on  those  particular 
days,  and  one  would  therefore  be  in  danger  of  being 
transfixed  by  this  divine  weapon ! 

Then  a  man  must  not  begin  any  important  work  on 
Rahu-kalam.  This  inauspicious  time  covers  an  hour 
and  a  half  of  each  day  of  the  week  and  is  at  a  different 
hour  every  day.  The  only  safe  hour  is  from  6  to  7.30 
each  morning.  That  hour  is  free  from  the  influence 
of  Rahu,  and  is  therefore  auspicious.  And  what  is 
Rahu  ?  It  is  not  a  planet  at  all,  as  was  thought  years 
ago;  nor  is  it  a  mighty  snake  which  periodically 
swallows  the  sun  or  moon.  It  is  merely  the  ascending 
node  in  astronomy  wherein  alone  the  eclipses  can  take 
place.  And  yet  this  imaginary  monster  has  a  very 
real  place  in  the  life  of  this  great  people,  and  the  foolish 
dread  of  it  converts  a  period  daily  into  an  inauspicious 
occasion  for  important  effort. 

I  will  present  only  one  other  illustration  with  a  view 
to  showing  how  extensively  this  moral  attribute  of  time 
is  ascribed  and  emphasized  in  the  serious  affairs  of  life 
in  India.  For  instance,  when  a  man  is  engaged  in  the 
performance  of  religious  duties,  it  is  regarded  as  of 
supreme  moment  that  he  know  when  certain  acts  are 


KALI  YUGA— INDIA'S  PESSIMISM  301 

of  no .  merit,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  of  special  merit. 

t 
Now,  there  is  a  regular  code  of  rules  for  this  special 

purpose.  By  observing  these  rules  carefully  one  may 
accumulate  religious,  merit  or  power  with  the  gods 
beyond  any  one  who  does  not  observe  them.  We  are 
told  that  a  rupee  contributed  in  charity  during  the  time 
of  an  eclipse,  or  at  the  time  when  the  new  moon  falls 
upon  Monday,  brings  as  much  merit  to  the  contributor, 
with  the  gods,  as  an  offering  of  one  thousand  rupees 
at  any  ordinary  time.  Who,  then,  would  not  choose 
the  right  time  for  his  religious  activity  if  time  alone  is 
the  element  which  adds  value  to  it,  and  if  motive  has 
evidently  so  little  of  importance  in  giving  quality  or 
value  to  our  efforts  in  the  religious  life  ? 


CHAPTER   XI 

ISLAM    IN    INDIA 

THERE  are  sixty-five  million  Mohammedans  in 
India.  This  constitutes  more  than  one-fifth  of  the 
total  population,  and  is  considerably  larger  than  the 
whole  population  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  There  are 
now  under  the  British  Empire  more  Mohammedans 
than  under  any  other  government  in  modern,  or  in 
earlier,  times.  For  at  least  ninety-five  millions  of  the 
followers  of  the  Prophet  of  Mecca  are  prospering  to- 
day under  the  aegis  of  Great  Britain ;  which  is  prob- 
ably five  millions  in  excess  of  the  Christian  population 
of  the  same  empire.  This  is  a  significant  fact. 

And  this  Islamic  population  in  India  is  growing, 
too.  During  the  last  decade  it  increased  by  9.1  per 
cent,  while  the  population  of  India,  as  a  whole,  in- 
creased only  by  1.9  per  cent. 

Of  the  Mohammedans  of  India,  only  a  small  portion 
are  descended  from  the  Mussulmans  of  the  West ; 
while  the  remainder  are  the  results  of  conversions 

from  Hinduism. 

302 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA  305 

This  population  is  scattered  all  over  India,  though 
North  India  is  the  home  of  the  majority  of  them. 
Bengal,  also,  has  a  large  Mohammedan  element  in 
its  population.  It  is  that  part  of  the  country  where 
Islam  has  gathered  in  the  largest  number  of  converts ; 
for,  of  the  people  of  that  Presidency,  more  than  one- 
third  (25,264,342)  are  Mussulmans.  And  in  certain 
portions  of  East  Bengal  the  Mohammedans  are  in  the 
large  majority. 

In  South  India,  too,  there  is  a  fair  representation 
of  the  members  of  this  faith.  One  can  hardly  pass 
through  any  section  of  the  country  without  seeing 
and  recognizing  them  by  their  physiognomy,  costume, 

or  customs. 

I 

The  History  of  Islam  in  India 

It  is  nearly  twelve  hundred  years  since  the  first 
military  expedition  of  this  triumphant  faith  entered 
this  land.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  first 
attack  of  Islam  (711  A.D.)  upon  India  almost  syn- 
chronizes with  the  end  of  the  millennium  of  Bud- 
dhistic rule  in  India.  Thus  the  incoming  of  the 
new  Hinduism  under  Sankaracharyar  almost  coin- 
cides with  the  first  onslaught  of  the  western  hordes  of 
the  Arabian  Prophet  upon  the  strongholds  of  India. 


306  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

It  was  a  pure  conquest  of  the  sword  which  gave  to 
Mohammed  in  India,  as  in  other  lands,  a  place  and 
a  possession.  And  those  early  days  of  Mohammedan 
triumph  are,  in  the  main,  a  record  of  cruel  butchery 
and  of  widespread  massacre.  They  fulfilled,  to  the 
letter,  the  command  of  the  founder  of  their  faith, 
which  says :  "  When  ye  encounter  the  unbelievers, 
strike  off  their  heads,  until  ye  have  made  a  great 
slaughter  among  them ;  and  bind  them  in  bonds ; 
and  either  give  them  a  free  dismission  afterwards,  or 
exact  a  ransom;  until  the  war  shall  have  laid  down 
its  arms.  This  shall  ye  do."  (Quran  (Koran),  xlviii. 

4,  5-) 

The  fanaticism  and  bigotry  of  that  people  carried 

triumph  everywhere;  and  their  triumph  meant  to 
every  Hindu  the  acceptance  of  the  sword,  the  Quran, 
or  tribute.  For  some  centuries,  indeed,  the  fortunes 
of  Islam  in  India  wavered,  and  its  undisputed  sway 
was  not  recognized  until  the  time  of  Baber,  the  dis- 
tinguished founder  of  the  great  Mogul  Empire  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  It  is  also  true  that,  among  the 
mild  and  patient  population  of  this  land,  the  spirit 
of  that  militant  faith  gradually  softened  until  the  era 
of  Akbar  the  Great  —  a  ruler  who  was  not  only  illus- 
trious as  a  lawgiver,  but  also  was  justly  celebrated 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA  307 

for  his  cosmopolitanism  and  religious  toleration.  He 
was  succeeded  by  another  great  name,  Shah  Jehan,  a 
man  of  wonderful  administrative  powers,  but  one  of 
narrow  sympathies  and  occasionally  given  to  cruel 
bigotry.  And  yet,  if  he  did  not  possess  the  graces  for 
a  noble  character,  he  adorned  his  realm  with  religious 
edifices  which  still  stand  unrivalled  in  their  exquisite 
beauty. 

The  cruel  Aurangzeeb  practically  closed  the  Mogul 
dynasty  by  his  weakness,  bloodthirstiness,  and  uncom- 
promising bigotry. 

It  is  strange  that  during  the  centuries  of  cruel  do- 
minion, of  uncompromising  fanaticism,  and  of  re- 
ligious intolerance,  the  whole  population  of  the  land 
was  not  absorbed  into  Islam.  But  the  Mogul  Empire 
passed  away.  And,  while  it  left  a  strong  impression 
on  the  country  as  a  whole,  and  affected  somewhat  the 
faiths  of  this  land  and  left  marvellous  monuments  of 
architectural  beauty,  it  did  not  seriously  change  the 
undercurrents  of  the  life  of  the  whole  people. 

II 

The  Present  Condition  of  this  Faith  in  India 

Like  all  other  faiths  in  this  peninsula,  Islam  is 
accepted  and  practised  in  all  degrees  of  purity,  from 


3o8  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

the  orthodox  worship,  conducted  in  the  grand  and 
beautiful  mosques  of  Delhi  and  Agra,  to  the  grovel- 
ling,  superstitious,  heathenish  ceremonies  which  ob- 
tain among,  and  which  constitute  the  religious  pabu- 
lum of,  the  masses  of  Islam  in  remote  villages  and 
in  distant  sections  of  the  land. 

Generally  speaking,  the  religion  of  Mohammed  is 
not  calculated  to  appeal  to  the  highly  poetic  mind  of 
India.  It  is  too  severe  and  prosaic  in  its  character. 
The  mind  of  India  delights  in  mystical  elaborations 
and  in  the  multiplication  of  fanciful  incarnations  and 
other  divine  manifestations.  The  Allah  of  Islam  is 
almost  as  remote  and  as  unknowable  a  deity  as  is 
the  Brahm  of  the  Vedantist.  But  in  the  absence  of 
a  personal  god  the  Vedantist  and  Hindus  in  general 
have  built  up  a  system  of  numberless  incarnations 
which  "  play "  upon  the  imagination  of  the  votaries 
and  give  ample  scope  to  the  remarkably  poetic 
genius  of  this  people. 

Mohammedanism  has  nothing  of  the  kind ;  it  denies 
even  the  possibility  of  divine  "descent,"  and  its 
animus  throughout  the  centuries  has  been  one  of 
antagonism  to  the  incarnation  doctrine  of  other 
faiths. 

The    Quran    is   largely   wanting    in    the    tropical 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA 


309 


warmth  and  legendary  lore  which  is  such  a  resource 
and  comfort  to  the  Indian  mind,  and  which  therefore 
abounds  in  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Brahmans. 

Doubtless,  the  simplicity  and  intelligibility  of  its 
creed  —  one  God,  one  prophet,  one  book  —  commends 
Mohammedanism  to  the  minds  of  many.  But  sim- 
plicity is  not  a  foible  of  the  religious  mind  of  India. 
It  has  always  craved  the  complex,  the  mystical,  and 
the  unfathomable.  It  delights  in  inconsistencies, 
and  indulges  freely  in  the  irreconcilable  mysteries  of 
faith.  vHinduism,  being  the  child  of  the  Hindu  mind, 
abounds  in  tropical  exuberance  of  spiritual  exercise 
and  "  amusements,"  which  seem  childish  and  inane  to 
all  other  people. 

The  teaching  of  Mohammed  has,  therefore,  very 
little  that  can  appeal  with  power,  carry  conviction,  and 
bring  contentment  to  the  people  of  India. 

In  nothing,  perhaps,  is  this  more  manifestly  marked 
than  in  the  conception  of  the  deity  above  referred  to. 
Islam  is  a  most  uncompromising  form  of  Unitarianism. 
It  is  bitterly  opposed  to  any  doctrine  which  brings 
God  down  to  men  and  renders  Him  intelligible  to  the 
common  mind.  It  denies  the  possibility  of  the  divine 
putting  on  human,  or  any  other,  nature. 

Hinduism,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  very  antithesis 


3io  INDIA:  ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

of  all  this.  At  first,  this  was  not  so.  But  its  rigid 
pantheism  gradually  necessitated  manifestations  of  the 
divine,  in  order  that  faith  and  devotion  might  be  made 
possible.  And,  in  later  centuries,  the  doctrine  of 
incarnation  was  accepted  as  a  haven  of  rest  to  the 
Hindu  mind  and  soon  became  a  wild  passion  of  its 
soul.  There  is  no  other  people  on  earth  who  have 
carried  the  doctrine  of  incarnation  (Avatar)  to  such 
excess  of  imaginings  as  to  create  such  abundantly  gro- 
tesque and  fanciful  appearances  of  their  many  divini- 
ties. Normally,  then,  the  Mohammedan  faith,  at  its 
very  core,  must  be  unsatisfying  and  even  repulsive  to 
the  tropical  Hindu  mind.  It  was  brought  here  at  the 
point  of  the  sword ;  and,  for  centuries,  it  was  the  faith 
of  a  ruling  power  whose  custom  was  to  tax  heavily  all 
people  who  did  not  conform,  outwardly  at  least,  to  the 
State  religion. 

After  Islam  had  become  established  and  secure  in 
its  success  in  India,  when  it  could  relax  its  grip  upon 
the  sword  and  relinquish  something  of  the  spirit  of 
intolerance  which  characterized  it,  it  had  to  meet  and 
cope  with  a  greater  foe  than  that  of  the  battle-field. 
Hinduism  has  always  exercised  a  great  benumbing 
influence  upon  all  faiths  which  have  come  into  contact 
and  conflict  with  it.  It  has  insinuated  itself  into  the 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA  311 

mind  of  the  conquerors  and  laid  its  palsied  hand  upon 
every  department  of  religious  thought  and  life.  So 
that,  after  a  few  centuries  of  prosperity  in  India,  Islam 
began  to  forget  its  narrow  bigotry  and  uncompromis- 
ing severity  and  fraternized  more  or  less  with  the 
religion  of  the  country.  Little  by  little  a  latitudina- 
rianism  crept  in,  which  found  its  culmination  in  that 
remarkable  man,  Akbar  the  Great,  who  entertained 
the  teachers  of  all  faiths  and  encouraged  a  fearless 
discussion  of  their  respective  merits.  Dr.  Wherry 
writes :  "  The  tolerance  of  Akbar,  who  not  only  re- 
moved the  poll-tax  from  all  his  non-Moslem  subjects, 
but  who  established  a  sort  of  parliament  of  religions, 
inviting  Brahmans,  Persian  Sufis,  Parsee  fire-worship- 
pers, and  Jesuit  priests  to  freely  discuss  in  his  pres- 
ence the  special  tenets  of  their  faith  and  practice,  was 
remarkable.  He  went  farther,  and  promulgated  an 
eclectic  creed  of  his  own  and  constituted  himself  a  sort 
of  priest-king  in  which  his  own  dictum  should  override 
everything  excepting  the  letter  of  the  Quran.  His 
own  creed  is  set  forth  in  the  following  words  of  India's 
greatest  poet,  Abul  Fazl :  — 

"  O  God,  in  every  temple  I  see  those  who  see  thee,  and,  in  every 

tongue  that  is  spoken,  thou  art  praised. 
Polytheism  and  Islam  grope  after  thee, 
Each  religion  says,  '  Thou  art  one,  without  equal,' 


2  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Be  it  mosque,  men  murmur  holy  prayer;  or  church,  the  bells  ring, 

for  love  of  thee ; 

Awhile  I  frequent  the  Christian  cloister,  anon  the  mosque  : 
But  thee  only  I  seek  from  fane  to  fane. 
Thine  elect  know  naught  of  heresy  or  orthodoxy,  whereof  neither 

stands  behind  the  screen  of  thy  truth. 
Heresy  to  the  heretic,  —  dogma  to  the  orthodox,  — 
But  the  dust  of  the  rose-petal  belongs  to  the  heart  of  the  perfume 

seller."  ' 


This  religious  cosmopolitanism  developed  into  what 
has  been  called  an  "  Eclectic  Pantheism,"  which  wel- 
comed all  men  and  satisfied  no  one. 

Even  though  Aurangzeeb  tried  to  stem  this  tide  of 
liberalism  and  to  rehabilitate  the  intolerance  and 
cruelty  of  ancient  Islam,  his  effort  was  not  only  unsuc- 
cessful, but  was  partly  instrumental  in  bringing  on  the 
downfall  of  the  Empire.  And  the  faith  of  Mohammed 
in  India  has  revealed,  ever  since,  the  sickly  pallor  and 
want  of  vigour  which  tropical  life  and  contact  with 
Hinduism  necessarily  entail. 

When  the  government  of  this  land  ceased  to  be 
Mohammedan,  and  the  sceptre  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  British,  whose  glory  it  has  been,  for  centuries, 
to  protect  its  subjects  from  the  bloody  hand  of  intoler- 
ance and  to  vouchsafe  unto  all  not  only  the  blessed 
boon  of  Pax  Britannica,  but  also  the  inexpressible 

1 « Islam  and  Christianity,"  p.  68. 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA  313 

right  and  privilege  of  religious  liberty,  —  then  passed 
away,  never  to  return,  we  hope,  from  this  motherland 
of  tolerance,  the  ghastly  sceptre  of  bigotry  and  fanati- 
cism. And  thus  Islam  ceased  to  be  enforced  and 
propagated  by  the  strong  arm  of  law  and  by  the  pointed 
argument  of  sword  and  spear  of  the  legions.  It  has, 
since  then,  enjoyed  in  this  land  a  free  and  an  open 
field  for  the  exercise  of  its  powers  of  persuasion.  But 
its  increase  has  not  been  marked.  And  what  there 
has  been  of  progress  has  been  owing  to  its  other  char- 
acteristics, which  we  will  mention  later. 

Thus  the  faith  of  the  Arabian  prophet  has  lost,  in 
India,  not  only  its  vigour,  but  also  its  prestige  and 
purity,  by  contact  with  the  lower  faiths  of  the  land, 
especially  with  the  ancestral  faith  of  India.  From  that 
religion  it  has  taken  unto  itself  many  of  the  base 
superstitions,  and  not  a  few  of  the  idolatrous  practices, 
which  have  characterized  it. 

Indeed,  the  great  mass  of  the  converts  from  Hin- 
duism, and  their  descendants,  have  had  but  a  distorted 
conception  of  the  lofty  faith  of  Mohammed,  which  they 
have  unequally  yoked  with  their  ancient  superstitions 
and  errors. 

The  Indian  census  of  1901  tells  us.  how  the  pure 
monotheism  of  Mohammed  has  been  debased  by  con- 


314  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

tact  with  worship  at  human  shrines :  "  We  have  seen 
in  the  case  of  Hinduism  that  the  belief  in  one  supreme 
God,  in  whom  are  vested  all  ultimate  powers,  is  not 
incompatible  with  the  belief  in  Supernatural  Beings 
who  exercise  considerable  influence  over  worldly  affairs, 
and  whose  influence  may  be  obtained  or  averted  by 
certain  ceremonies.  Similarly,  in  the  case  of  Islam, 
while  the  masses  have,  on  the  whole,  a  clearer  idea  of 
the  unity  and  omnipotence  of  God  than  the  ordinary 
Hindu  has,  they  also  have  a  firm  belief  in  the  value  of 
offerings  at  certain  holy  places  for  obtaining  temporal 
blessings.  Thus  the  shrine  of  Saiyad  Salar,  at  Bah- 
raich,  is  resorted  to,  both  by  Hindus  and  Mussulmans, 
if  a  wife  is  childless,  or  if  family  quarrels  cannot  be 
composed.  Diseases  may  be  cured  by  a  visit  to  the 
shrine  of  Shaik  Saddo,  at  Amroha  in  Moradabad ; 
while  for  help  in  legal  difficulties  Shah  Mina's  dargah 
at  Lucknow  is  renowned.  Each  of  these  has  its 
appropriate  offering,  —  a  long  embroidered  flag  for 
the  first,  a  cock  for  the  second,  and  a  piece  of  cloth 
for  the  third.  Other  celebrated  shrines  are  those  of 
Bahauddin  Madar  Shah  at  Nakkanpur  in  the  Cawn- 
pore  district,  and  of  Ala-uddin  Sabir  at  Piran  Kaliar 
in  Saharanpur."  The  same  writer,  in  his  report  con- 
cerning Bengal,  says :  "  The  unreformed  Mohamme- 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA  315 

dans  of  the  lower  and  uneducated  classes  are  deeply 
infected  with  Hindu  superstitions,  and  their  knowl- 
edge of  the  faith  they  profess  seldom  extends  beyond 
the  three  cardinal  doctrines  of  the  Unity  of  God,  the 
mission  of  Mohammed,  and  the  truth  of  the  Quran; 
and  they  have  a  very  faint  idea  of  the  differences  be- 
tween their  religion  and  that  of  the  Hindus.  Some- 
times they  believe  that  they  are  descended  from  Abel 
(Habil),  while  the  Hindus  owe  their  origin  to  Cain 
(Kabil).  Kabil,  they  say,  killed  Habil  and  dug  a 
grave  for  him  with  a  crow's  beak." 

Before  the  recent  crusade  against  idolatry  it  was 
the  regular  practice  of  low-class  Mohammedans  to 
join  in  the  Durga  Puja  and  other  Hindu  religious 
festivals,  and  although  they  have  been  purged  of 
many  superstitions,  many  still  remain.  In  par- 
ticular, they  are  very  careful  about  omens  and  au- 
spicious days.  Dates  for  weddings  are  often  fixed 
after  consulting  a  Hindu  astrologer;  bamboos  are 
not  cut,  nor  the  building  of  new  houses  commenced, 
on  certain  days  of  the  week;  and  journeys  are  often 
undertaken  only  after  referring  to  the  Hindu  alma- 
nac to  see  if  the  proposed  day  is  auspicious.  When 
disease  is  prevalent,  Sitala  and  Rakshya  Kali  are 
worshipped.  Dharmaraj,  Manasa,  Bishahari,  are 


3i 6  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

also  venerated  by  many  ignorant  Mohammedans. 
Sasthi  is  worshipped  when  a  child  is  born.  Even 
now,  in  some  parts  of  Bengal,  they  observe  the 
Durga  Puga  and  buy  new  clothes  for  the  festival, 
like  the  Hindus.  "  Apart  from  Hindu  superstitions, 
there  are  certain  forms  of  worship  common  amongst 
Mohammedans  which  are  not  based  on  the  Quran. 
The  most  common  of  these  is  the  adoration  of  de- 
parted Ptrs." 

In  Rajputana,  the  Mohammedans  of  local  origin 
"still  retain  their  ancient  Hindu  customs  and  ideas. 
The  local  saints  and  deities  are  regularly  wor- 
shipped, the  Brahman  officiates  at  all  family  cere- 
monials side  by  side  with  the  Mussulman  priest, 
and,  if  in  matters  of  creed  they  are  Mohammedans, 
in  matters  of  form  they  are  Hindus." 

In  Baluchistan,  we  are  told  of  the  Mohammedan 
that  "his  practice  is,  to  say  the  least  of  it,  un- 
Islamic.  Though  he  repeats  every  day  that  there 
is  one  God  only  who  is  worthy  of  worship,  he 
almost  invariably  prefers  to  worship  some  saint  or 
tomb.  The  Saints,  or  Pirs,  in  fact,  are  invested 
with  all  the  attributes  of  God.  It  is  the  Saint  who 
can  avert  calamity,  cure  disease,  procure  children 
for  the  childless,  bless  the  efforts  of  the  hunter,  or 


ISLAM  IN   INDIA  317 

even  improve  the  circumstances  of  the  dead.  The 
underlying  feeling  seems  to  be  that  man  is  too  sin- 
ful to  approach  God  direct,  and  therefore  the  inter- 
vention of  some  one  worthy  must  be  sought." 

In  South  India,  also,  Hindus  and  Mohammedans 
fraternize  not  a  little,  especially  in  the  religious 
festivities.  Mohammedans  do  not  hesitate,  under 
certain  conditions,  to  bring  offerings  to  particular 
Hindu  shrines.  And  it  is  a  very  common  thing  to 
see  Hindus  pay  their  respects  to  Mohammedan 
fakirs.  The  Mohurram,  in  South  India,  is  partici- 
pated in,  at  least  in  its  festive  aspects,  by  multi- 
tudes of  Hindus.  Many  Mohammedans  are  feeling 
keenly  the  degradation  of  this  contact.  A  well- 
known  Mussulman  writer  moans  over  the  situation 
in  the  following  words :  — 

"  The  baneful  influence  that  Hindu  customs  have 
had  on  Mussulmans  is  painful  to  read  of.  Many  a 
Hindu  ceremonial  has  been  incorporated  by  the 
followers  of  the  Prophet.  The  marriage  ceremonies, 
instead  of  keeping  to  the  simple  form  prescribed  by 
the  Quran,  have  been  greatly  elaborated,  and  in- 
clude processions.  Even  in  religious  matters,  Hindu 
and  Mussulman  practices  have  become  curiously 
blended.  Hindus  take  a  leading  part  in  the  cele- 


3i8  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

bration  of  Mohurram.  Passages  from  the  Quran 
are  sometimes  chanted  in  the  Hindu  fashion;  Mo- 
hammedan women  of  the  lower  classes  break  cocoa- 
nuts  at  Hindu  temples  in  fulfilment  of  vows. 
Strangest  of  all,  there  is  said  to  be  a  Hindu  temple 
at  a  village  near  Trichinopoly  which  is  sacred  to 
a  goddess  called  the  Mussulmans'  lady,  who  is  said 
to  be  the  wife  of  the  Hindu  god  Ranganatha  at 
Srirangam.  These  are  some  of  the  sad  features 
which  the  census  report  has  brought  to  light. 
They  tend  to  show  that,  except  in  a  few  dead  for- 
malities, the  life  of  Mussulmans  in  South  India  is 
nothing  different  from  that  of  the  Hindus.  In 
many  cases  the  followers  of  the  Arabian  prophet 
would  seem  to  have  forgotten  even  the  root  prin- 
ciples of  their  religion  —  the  unity  of  God,  the 
formless,  and  the  unincarnate.  This  fact  alone  is 
more  than  enough  to  fill  the  mind  of  the  true 
Mussulman  with  anxious  concern  with  regard  to  the 
future  prospects  of  Islam  in  this  country.  His 
pious  soul  can  find  no  rest  with  the  view  before 
him  of  hundreds  and  thousands  of  his  coreligionists 
sunk  deep  in  the  degrading  practices  of  the  heathen 
around." 

In  this  connection  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that 


ISLAM   IN    INDIA  319 

the  Sikh  faith  in  North  India  is  really  a  com- 
promise between  these  two  faiths.  Its  founder, 
Nanak  Shah,  possessed  the  very  laudable  ambition 
of  producing  a  religion  possessed  of  the  best  ele- 
ments of  both  of  these  faiths.  And  though  the 
more  than  two  millions  of  his  present  followers 
have  drifted  very  much  toward  Hinduism,  which  is 
the  drift  of  all  things  in  this  land,  and  are  hardly 
to  be  distinguished  from  their  neighbours  in  creed 
and  custom,  yet  the  religion  stands  as  a  testimony 
to  the  mutual  influence  of  these  two  faiths. 

Nor  should  one  forget  what  is  now  going  on  on 
this  line  among  Hindus.  Dr.  Grierson  tells  us,  in 
his  recent  interesting  lecture,  that  "  Allah  the 
God  of  the  Mussulman  —  the  God  of  the  Jews  and 
ourselves  —  has  Himself  been  admitted  to  the 
Hindu  pantheon,  together  with  His  prophet,  and  a 
new  section  of  the  never  completed  Hindu  bible, 
the  *  Allah  Upanishad,'  has  been  provided  in  His 
honour." 

Moreover,  Hindus  charge  the  Mohammedan  faith 
with  being  the  cause  of  the  zenana  system  of  this 
land.  The  seclusion  of  women  began,  they  say,  on 
account  of  the  licentiousness  of  the  Arabs.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  it  is  true  that  the  Mohammedan 


320  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Purdah  system,  which  separates  so  thoroughly 
women  from  the  other  sex,  found  adoption,  or  at 
least  emphasis,  among  the  Hindus.  In  ancient 
times,  so  far  as  we  can  learn,  the  women  of  Brah- 
manism  found  considerable  freedom  and  indepen- 
dence of  life.  Probably  the  truth  is  that,  as  Hin- 
duism developed  certain  types  of  doctrine  which  bore 
heavily  upon  the  weaker  sex,  the  range  of  privilege 
and  opportunity  which  women  enjoyed  found  grad- 
ual limitation  and  curtailment  which  found  marked 
impetus  upon  the  advent  of  the  Arab  hordes. 

And  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  persist- 
ent attitude  of  Mohammedans  toward  slavery  and 
toward  polygamy  has  had  a  deleterious  effect  upon 
the  Hindu  people. 

Though  Islam  came  to  India  uninvited,  and 
though  its  pathway  has  been  marked  with  blood,  it 
has  not  been  without  great  opportunity  to  impress 
the  people  of  this  land  with  its  nobility.  But,  as 
we  have  seen,  the  opportunity  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  improved.  After  twelve  centuries  of 
active  propagandism  and  some  centuries  of  political 
rule  and  religious  oppression,  this  religion  is  still 
an  exotic,  and  finds,  on  the  whole,  small  place  in 
the  affection  of  the  people.  This  is  owing  in  part 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA  321 

to  its  want  of  adaptation  and  inherent  lack  of 
vital  power.  As  Sir  Monier  William  has  said: 
"  There  is  a  finality  and  a  want  of  elasticity  about 
Mohammedanism  which  precludes  its  expanding 
beyond  a  certain  fixed  line  of  demarcation.  Having 
once  reached  this  line,  it  appears  to  lapse  back- 
wards—  to  tend  toward  mental  and  moral  slavery, 
to  contract  with  the  narrower  and  narrower  circles 
of  bigotry  and  exclusiveness." 

Add  again  to  this  the  fact,  already  mentioned, 
that  its  new  environment  in  India  has  been  dele- 
terious to  the  vitality  of  the  Mohammedan  faith. 
"  Mohammedanism,  as  a  quiescent  non-proselytizing 
religion,  could  only  become  corrupt  and  rotten. 
The  effect  of  all  this  policy  on  the  mass  of  Moham- 
medans was  to  deprive  their  religious  sentiment  of 
that  intolerance  which  constituted  its  strength.  Its 
moral  power  was  gone  when  it  ceased  to  be  intol- 
erant. .  .  .  These  two  religions  have  thus  settled 
down  beside  each  other  on  terms  of  mutual  charity 
and  toleration.  This  does  not  imply  any  great 
change  or  deterioration  in  Hinduism,  for  its  prin- 
ciples admit  every  belief  as  truth,  and  every  religion 
as  a  way  of  salvation.  All  that  it  requires  is 
acknowledgment  of  the  same  principle  from  other 

Y 


322  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

religions,  and  this  is  the  position  which  it  has  prac- 
tically forced  Mohammedanism  to  assume  in  India. 
But  such  a  position  is  utterly  opposed  to  the  prin- 
ciples and  claims  of  the  latter  religion;  and  in  forc- 
ing Mohammedanism  to  accept  it,  Hinduism  has 
undoubtedly  gained  the  triumph." 1 

And  yet  let  it  not  be  supposed  that  Islam  in 
India  is  either  dead  or  moribund.  It  is  evidently 
sensible  of  its  defects  and  has  made,  from  time  to 
time,  efforts  to  reform  itself. 

Under  the  stress  of  circumstances  and  the  sense 
of  waning  power  they  have  even  translated  the 
Quran  into  Urdu,  with  a  view  to  reaching  the 
common  people.  This  is  an  unique  effort  on  their 
part.  Like  Romanists,  in  the  use  of  the  Latin  ser- 
vice, the  Mohammedans  cling,  with  deathly  tenacity, 
to  their  Arabic  bible  and  Arabic  worship,  foolishly 
believing  that  to  vernacularize  their  faith  is  to  de- 
grade and  corrupt  it.  In  Madura,  where  there  is  a 
mosque  of  some  pretension,  there  are  only  two  or 
three  who  can  pronounce  their  Arabic  Quran.  And 
while  they  have  learned  to  pronounce,  in  the  ancient 
tongue,  their  beloved  book,  they  do  not  understand 
the  meaning  of  what  they  say,  and  merely  parrot 

1  "Hinduism  and  Christianity,''  by  Dr.  Robson,  pp.  168,  173. 


ISLAM    IN    INDIA  323 

the  whole  ritual.  But  a  break  has  been  made  from 
this  inane  method  of  worship,  and  their  holy  book 
has  now  been  translated  into  one  vernacular  of 
India. 

Islam  has  also  revealed  definite  redeeming  qualities 
which  seem  distinctive  and  are  worthy  of  enumeration. 

Its  prohibition  of  the  use  of  intoxicating  drinks  is 
definite,  and  its  attitude  toward  that  accursed  habit 
has  been  consistently  and  vehemently  antagonistic. 
Hence,  the  Mohammedan  of  India  is  recognized  as 
a  sober  man,  faithful  to  his  religion  in  this  matter 
wherein  the  Christian  reveals  so  much  weakness.  It 
is  true  that  in  some  parts  of  the  country  Mussulmans 
are  too  often  addicted  to  the  use  of  opiates.  But  a 
drunken  member  of  this  faith  is  rarely  to  be  found. 
In  this,  Islam  has  joined  forces  with  Hinduism  itself 
in  proscribing  a  habit  which  is  the  curse  and  ruin  of 
too  many  Christian  lands.  And  it  is  a  distinct  blot 
upon  the  Christian  Church  in  India  that  many  of  its 
followers,  in  this  land  of  sobriety  and  abstinence,  so 
easily  fall  into  the  temptation  of  the  cup  and  become 
the  victims  of  intemperance. 

Islam  also  enforces  the  law  of  usury  among  its 
followers.  With  the  Jew,  the  Mohammedan  has  been 
strictly  forbidden  to  make  money  by  the  use  of 


324  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

money.  And  though  they  find  ways  of  evading  this 
law,  to  some  extent,  the  ideal  which  they  have  before 
them  is  a  restraint  and  a  blessing  in  a  land  where  the 
usurer  is  a  ubiquitous  curse,  because  of  his  rapacity 
and  the  expertness  with  which  he  draws  the  common 
people  into  his  net  and  leads  millions  to  financial  loss 
and  ruin. 

The  supreme  place  given  in  this  faith  to  the  duty 
of  almsgiving,  and  the  effective  way  with  which  it 
is  carried  out  among  its  members,  is  another  praise- 
worthy feature.  At  the  time  of  their  political  rule 
and  extensive  sway  there  was  a  well-known  tax  whose 
purpose  was  to  carry  relief  to  the  poor  and  the  suffer- 
ing. And  Mohammedans  feel  to-day  that  there  is 
hardly  a  religious  duty  which  is  more  sacred  and 
carries  with  it  more  of  reward  than  that  of  distribut- 
ing alms  to  the  poor.  Far  more  than  Christianity 
has  it  given  importance  and  distinction  to  this  as  a 
special  form  of  its  religious  activity. 

Moreover,  its  command  to  observe  the  five  seasons 
of  daily  prayer  is  important,  with  a  view  to  maintain- 
ing and  enforcing  the  ordinary  forms  and  observances 
of  a  living  faith.  Many  a  time  have  I  been  impressed 
with  the  way  Mohammedans,  in  this  land,  faithfully 
and  boldly  observe  this  rule  and  privilege  of  their 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA  325 

faith  by  spreading  their  mats  in  most  unexpected 
places,  even  in  the  presence  of  gaping  crowds,  and 
prostrating  themselves  in  prayer  with  their  faces 
Mecca-ward  as  a  proof  of  their  sincerity  and  as  a 
testimony  to  the  power  of  their  religion. 

But  there  is  nothing  in  which  Islam  exerts  a  more 
salutary  influence  in  this  caste-ridden  land  than  in 
its  attitude  toward  this  monster  evil  of  Hinduism. 
Islam  is  neither  founded  upon  race,  colour,  nor 
nationality.  It  has  been  well  said  that  in  Islam  "  all 
believers  belong  to  the  highest  caste."  It  recog- 
nizes to  the  full  the  brotherhood  of  all  the  members 
of  its  faith.  Even  its  slaves  have  been  exalted  to  its 
throne  and  have  achieved  highest  distinction.  The 
last  census  correctly  says :  "  On  its  social  side,  the 
religion  of  Mohammed  is  equally  opposed  to  the 
Hindu  scheme  of  a  hierarchy  of  castes,  an  elaborate 
stratification  of  society  based  upon  subtle  distinctions 
of  food,  dress,  drink,  marriage,  and  ceremonial  usage. 
In  the  sight  of  God  and  of  His  Prophet  all  followers 
of  Islam  are  equal.  In  India,  however,  caste  is  in  the 
air;  its  contagion  has  spread  even  to  the  Moham- 
medans ;  and  we  find  its  evolution  proceeding  on 
characteristically  Hindu  lines.  In  both  communities, 
foreign  descent  forms  the  highest  claim  to  social  dis- 


326  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

tinction ;  in  both,  promotion  cometh  from  the  West. 
As  the  twice-born  Aryan  is  to  the  mass  of  Hindus,  so 
is  the  Mohammedan  of  alleged  Arab,  Persian,  Afghan, 
or  Mogul  origin  to  the  rank  and  file  of  his  coreligion- 
ists." 

I  admit  that  there  are  social  distinctions  and  class 
cleavages  among  the  members  of  this  faith,  as  among 
all  peoples.  These  are  in  no  sense  religious,  how- 
ever, as  they  are  in  Hinduism.  Among  the  members 
of  that  faith  there  is  equality  of  right ;  and  every 
Islamite,  by  his  own  industry  and  character,  can  enjoy 
that  right  in  this  land.  It  is  true  that  Islam  has  yet 
to  learn  the  brotherhood  of  man  as  such,  and  to  rec- 
ognize that  the  non-Mussulman  and  the  Mussulman 
alike  are  possessed  of  equal  rights  and  favours  in  the 
sight  of  God.  But  within  the  faith  itself,  caste,  as 
such,  is  unknown.  This  is  much  more  than  can  be 
said  of  the  Indian  Christian  Church  at  the  present 
day,  notwithstanding  the  spirit  of  our  religion  and  its 
definite  injunctions.  The  Hindu  caste  system  has 
been  transferred  too  much  into  the  Christian  fold. 
Most  of  the  accessions  from  Hinduism  to  Moham- 
medanism at  the  present  time  are  from  the  lowest 
classes  of  Hinduism,  with  a  view  to  securing  a  defi- 
nitely higher  social  status  which  Mohammedanism 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA 


327 


distinctly  promises  and  invariably  confers  upon  these 
newcomers.  It  were  well  if  modern  converts  to 
Christianity  from  the  outcasts  could  hope  for  and  re- 
ceive from  the  Hindus  the  same  recognized  advance 
in  social  position  and  esteem  by  becoming  members 
of  our  religion,  as  they  do  by  entering  the  faith  of 
Islam.  This  is  not  the  fault  of  Christianity,  but  the 
folly  of  its  converts,  who  do  not  leave  their  heathenish 
conceptions  and  estimates  outside  the  precincts  of 
Christianity.  This  difference,  which  I  have  empha- 
sized, is,  as  might  be  expected,  more  marked  and 
manifest  in  South  India  than  elsewhere.  A  Christian 
worker  in  this  land  cannot  help  envying  Islam  the 
noble  stand  which  it  has  taken  concerning  caste. 

At  the  present  time  the  Muslims  of  India  are 
divided  into  two  sects,  something  like  the  Catholics 
and  Protestants  of  Christianity.  The  Sunnis  are  the 
traditionists,  and  constitute  the  large  majority  of  that 
faith.  The  Shiahs  are  the  dissenters.  For  twelve 
hundred  years  has  this  division  existed,  and  the  two 
parties  are  as  irreconcilable  to-day  as  ever.  There  is 
also  a  sect  of  mystics  known  as  Sufis. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  a  new  sect  of  Purists 
was  formed  in  Arabia.  They  reject  the  glosses  of 
Immams,  will  not  accept  the  authority  of  the  Sultan, 


328  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

and  make  light  of  the  great  Prophet  himself.  They 
are  a  fanatical  sect  and  delight  in  proclaiming  jihad* 
or  holy  war,  against  the  infidels.  These  are  the 
Wahabbis.  This  sect  was  introduced  to  India  by 
Sayad  Ahmed  Shah,  and  it  has  gained  many  converts. 
It  is  largely  a  movement  toward  reforming  the  faith 
from  within.  In  spirit,  it  is  not  very  unlike  the  move- 
ment of  the  fanatics  known  as  Ghazis,  whose  zeal 
burns  against  all  infidels,  especially  those  of  the 
European  Christian  type. 

Ill 

What    is   the    Character  of  the   Mohammedan 
Population    in    India  ? 

It  will  be  interesting  to  appraise  them  largely  by 
comparing  them  with  the  Hindu  population  which 
surrounds  them.  Generally  speaking,  they  are  morally 
on  a  level  with  their  neighbours.  In  South  India, 
especially,  it  is  difficult  to  discriminate  between  the 
ethical  standards  which  obtain  among  Mohammedans 
and  Hindus.  In  both  cases  they  are  low  and  unworthy. 
This  is  unexpected,  as  Islam  has  always  stood  for  a 
worthy  ethical  standing,  while  Hinduism  has,  from 
time  immemorial,  divorced  morality  from  piety. 
Nevertheless,  it  Is  a  fact  that  those  who  have  passed 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA  329 

on  from  Hinduism  to  Mohammedanism  have  rarely 
ascended  in  the  ethical  standard  of  life. 

The  personal  habits  of  the  Indian  Mussulman  are 
not  clean,  to  say  the  least  of  them.  In  this  they  are  a 
contrast  to  the  Brahmans,  and  to  some  other  high-class 
Hindus,  whose  ceremonial  ablutions  are  many.  In 
South  India,  the  Mohammedan  is  described  by  a  ver- 
nacular expression  which  is  as  uncomplimentary  as  it 
is  filthy,  and  which  is  intended  to  classify  them  among 
the  lowest  in  their  habits.  When  cholera  and  similar 
epidemics  prevail  in  the  regions  with  which  I  am  famil- 
iar, the  Mohammedan,  with  the  Pariah,  on  account  of 
unclean  habits,  becomes  the  first  victim  of  its  ravages. 

Add  to  this  their  strong  belief  in  fate,  which  leads 
them,  during  these  epidemics,  to  neglect  or  to  decline 
the  use  of  medical  remedies.  Many  a  Muslim  perishes 
during  such  times  because  of  his  fatalistic  convictions. 

They  are  also  among  the  most  ignorant  of  all  classes 
in  India.  While,  in  the  total  population  of  the  land, 
hardly  more  than  5  per  cent  are,  in  any  sense,  literate, 
the  Mohammedans,  as  a  class,  have  only  3  per  cent. 
And  of  the  Mohammedan  population  nearly  all  the 
women  are  analphabet.  In  the  educational  system  of 
India  the  government  places  Mohammedans  among  the 
"backward  classes,"  and  every  effort  has  been  made 


330  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

by  the  State,  even  to  the  doubling  of  educational  grants, 
to  stimulate  the  members  of  this  faith  on  educational 
lines. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  discouraging  facts  connected 
with  the  Muslim  population  that  while  they  are  brave 
in  bearing  arms  and  loyal  to  the  government,  they 
have  an  apparent  aversion  to  the  schoolhouse,  and 
can  with  difficulty  be  induced  to  secure  even  an  ele- 
mentary education.  This  bears  very  heavily  against 
their  prosperity  and  influence.  Public  offices  in  India 
are  wisely  placed  in  charge  of  those  who  are  compe- 
tent, by  a  thorough  training  and  a  broad  education,  to 
well  fill  them.  The  consequence  is  that  the  Moham- 
medan has  been  gradually  driven  out  from  nearly  all 
public  positions  of  trust  by  the  intellectually  more 
alert  Brahman,  and  even  by  lower-class  Hindus,  who 
are  availing  themselves  of  the  opportunities  for  higher 
education. 

It  is  not  strange  that  the  political  influence  of  this 
community  has  correspondingly  waned,  so  that  only  a 
very  small  number  relatively  of  Muslims  is  found  to-day 
in  the  councils  of  the  Empire. 

A  new  ambition,  however,  seems  to  be  taking  pos- 
session of  the  community.  They  have  recently  organ- 
ized many  schools  under  the  direction  of  "  The  Society 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA  331 

for  the  Aid  of  Islam."  These  schools,  without  neg- 
lecting the  study  of  the  Quran  and  their  sacred  lan- 
guage and  the  tenets  of  their  faith,  give  instruction  on 
western  lines,  and  in  the  English  language. 

They  have  established,  also,  under  the  inspiration 
of  the  late  Sir  Sayid  Ahmed  Khan,  a  college  at  Ali- 
garh.  Though  the  rationalistic  teaching  of  the  founder 
causes  the  institution  to  be  discredited  by  orthodox 
leaders,  the  college  has  developed  wonderfully,  and  is 
beginning  to  assume  the  proportions  of  a  Muslim 
University.  Of  this  institution  a  learned  Mussulman 
remarked  in  an  address  :  — 

"We  want  Aligarh  to  be  such  a  home  of  learning 
as  to  command  the  same  respect  of  scholars  as  Berlin 
or  Oxford,  Leipsic  or  Paris.  And  we  want  those 
branches  of  learning  relative  to  Islam  which  are  fast 
falling  into  decay  to  be  added  by  Moslem  scholars  to 
the  stock  of  the  world's  knowledge.  And,  above  all, 
we  want  to  create  for  our  people  an  intellectual  and 
moral  capital  —  a  city  which  shall  be  the  home  of 
elevated  ideas  and  pure  ideals;  a  centre  from  which 
light  and  guidance  shall  be  diffused  among  the  Mos- 
lems of  India." 

Much  may  be  expected  from  the  institution.  But 
what  is  one  such  school  among  the  many  millions  of 


INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

this  community  in  India  ?  Government  is  anxious  to 
aid  and  inspire  the  community  on  these  lines ;  and  the 
present  success  of  the  institution  is,  in  good  part, 
owing  to  the  smile  of  the  State  upon  it. 

The  recent  organization  of  the  Pan-Islamic  Move- 
ment is  full  of  hope.  The  leading  representatives  of 
the  community  in  India  seem  anxious  and  determined 
to  rouse  their  coreligionists  from  their  lethargy  and 
to  create  within  them  a  new  ambition  for  a  higher  and 
a  more  honourable  place  in  intelligence  and  official 
usefulness.  This  is  much  needed,  because  the  com- 
munity has  reached  its  lowest  ebb  of  influence  among 
the  people. 

In  the  present  unrest  Mohammedans  mainly  stand 
with  the  government  against  the  Hindu  Extremists. 
They  wisely  realize  that  the  British  Raj  presents  to 
them,  as  a  community,  far  better  opportunity  and  larger 
favours  than  would  accrue  to  them  under  any  other 
possible  government,  even  though  their  warlike  traits 
might  lead  them  once  more  to  subdue  and  rule  the 
land  themselves. 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA  333 

IV 

Christian  Effort  in  India  in  Behalf  of  the 
Mussulman 

Missionaries  have  everywhere  presented  to  Mo- 
hammedan and  Hindu  alike  the  Gospel  Message. 
The  follower  of  Mohammed  has  never  been  ignored 
in  the  proclaiming  of  Christ  and  in  the  work  of 
the  Mission  school. 

Generally  speaking,  they  are  a  very  hard  class 
to  reach ;  they  very  rarely  seem  impressed,  or  are 
willing  to  consider  the  message  as  a  personal  call 
to  themselves.  The  high  character  of  their  faith 
above  that  of  the  surrounding  people  partly  accounts 
for  this.  Moreover,  the  religion  itself  inculcates  in- 
tolerance, and  naturally  narrows  the  vision  of  appre- 
ciation and  sympathy  amongst  its  followers. 

It  is  also,  in  some  measure,  due  to  their  supreme 
ignorance  of  the  teaching  of  their  own  faith.  They 
have  many  fantastic  notions  about  Islam,  such  as 
intelligent  members  of  their  faith  repudiate,  and  such 
as  make  them  inaccessible  to  the  Christian  worker. 

And  yet  they  are  not  reached  and  impressed 
with  more  difficulty  than  are  the  Brahmans  and 
some  other  high-class  Hindus.  Though  conver- 


334  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

sions  from  among  them  have  been  relatively  few, 
accessions  from  Islam  to  the  Christian  faith  have 
been  continuous  during  the  last  century.  There 
have  not  been  many  mass  movements  among  them. 
It  has  been  largely  the  struggle  of  individual  souls 
from  the  trammels  of  one  faith  into  the  liberty  of 
the  other.  Dr.  Wherry  informs  us  that :  "  In  the 
North,  especially  the  Punjab,  and  the  Northwest 
Frontier  Province,  every  congregation  has  a  repre- 
sentation from  the  Moslem  ranks.  Some  of  the 
churches  have  a  majority  of  their  membership 
gathered  from  amongst  the  Mussulmans.  In  a  few 
cases  there  has  been  something  like  a  movement 
among  Moslems  toward  Christianity,  and  a  con- 
siderable number  have  come  out  at  one  time.  But 
perhaps  the  fact  that  tells  most  clearly  the  story 
of  the  advance  of  Christianity  among  Moslems  in 
India,  is  this,  that  among  the  native  pastors  and 
Christian  preachers  and  teachers  in  North  India 
there  are  at  least  two  hundred  who  were  once  fol- 
lowers of  Islam.  Among  the  names  of  those  who 
have  gone  to  their  reward  (many  of  them,  after 
long  lives  of  faithful  service),  some  of  my  readers 
will  recall  the  names  of  the  Rev.  Maulvie  Ima- 
duddin,  D.D.,  Maulvie  Safdar  AH,  E.A.C.,  Munshi 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA  335 

Mohammed  Hanif,  Sayyad  Abdullah  Athim,  E.A.C., 
the  Rev.  Rajab  Ali,  Sain  Gumu  Shah,  the  Rev. 
Abdul  Masih,  the  Rev.  Asraf  Ali,  the  Rev.  Jani 
Ali,  and  Dilawur  Khan.  These  faithful  servants 
of  God  have  left  behind  them  memories  which 
still  live.  Many  of  them  have  bequeathed  volumes 
of  literature,  which  have  added  much  to  the  liter- 
ary wealth  of  all  the  churches.  They  give  an 
index  wherewith  to  guide  us  as  to  what  the  strength 
and  character  of  the  Church  of  the  future  will  be 
when  the  strong  champions  of  the  Crescent  shall 
have  become  the  Champions  of  the  Cross." 

We  are  also  told  by  the  Rev.  Maulvie  Imadud- 
din,  D.D.,  of  North  India,  that  "117  men  of  posi- 
tion and  influence  have  become  Christians,  of  whom 
62  became  clergy  and  leading  men  in  many  of  the 
Indian  Missions,  and  51  are  gentlemen  occupying 
positions  professional  and  official.  Out  of  956  bap- 
tisms of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  in  the 
Amritsar  District,  152  were  Mohammedan  converts. 
In  the  Punjab  there  are  at  least  two  congregations 
made  up  entirely  of  Mohammedans,  while  in  Ben- 
gal there  is  a  body  of  more  than  6000  Christians 
composed  almost  entirely  of  Mohammedan  converts 
and  their  descendants,  a  large  number  having  come 


336  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

over  en  masse  some  years  ago.  These  last  were 
converts  in  the  first  instance  from  Hinduism  to 
Mohammedanism,  and  hence  were  not  bound  so 
strongly  to  Islam." 

In  South  India,  less  attention  has  been  paid 
to  Mohammedans  as  a  class,  and  the  results  there- 
fore have  been  very  meagre.  A  few  individuals, 
here  and  there,  have  accepted  our  faith,  and  that 
is  practically  all.  This  is  not  strange  when  we 
remember  that  out  of  the  eleven  hundred  Protes- 
tant missionaries,  male  and  female,  in  Southern 
India,  perhaps  not  a  dozen  have  any  special  train- 
ing and  aptitude  for  work  among  Mohammedans, 
and  hardly  more  than  that  number  are  giving 
themselves  entirely  to  the  work. 

The  difficulty  of  this  work  should  appeal  more 
than  it  does  to  the  heroic  element  in  missionaries 
and  missionary  societies  alike.  The  above  facts 
indicate  that  there  is  encouragement  for  one  who 
gives  himself  heartily  to  this  people.  In  no  other 
land  has  missionary  effort  for  the  members  of  this 
religion  achieved  greater  results  than  in  India.  If 
their  numbers  are  few,  they  are  more  resolute  and 
pronounced  in  their  Christian  character  than  many 
others.  In  the  roll  of  honour  among  the  converts 


ISLAM   IN   INDIA  337 

from  Islam  have  been  found  the  names  of  a  number 
of  distinguished  pastors  and  able  writers. 

In  the  recent  Conference  of  Missionaries,  held  in 
Cairo,  a  new  purpose  was  manifested  to  take  up 
with  more  discriminating  and  pronounced  zeal  and 
better  methods  the  work  of  reaching  and  convert- 
ing the  Mohammedans  of  the  world. 

In  India,  a  better  organized  and  a  wider  cam- 
paign for  the  conversion  of  Islam  is  needed.  Men 
and  women  who  are  to  take  up  work  in  their  be- 
half must  not  only  be  well  trained  for  this  spe- 
cific work  by  a  thorough  knowledge  of  both  faiths; 
they  must  also  be  imbued  with  abundant  sympathy 
for  the  people,  and  with  a  sympathetic  appreciation 
of  the  vital  truths  which  have  thus  far  animated 
the  Mohammedan  faith.  The  constructive,  rather 
than  the  destructive,  method  of  activity  must  increas- 
ingly animate  all.  The  Mohammedans  are  pecul- 
iarly sensitive;  and  there  is  so  much  of  contact 
between  their  faith  and  ours  that  through  the  path- 
way of  the  harmonies  of  the  faiths  men  must  be 
led  to  know  and  feel  the  supreme  excellence  and 
power  of  the  faith  of  the  Christ. 


CHAPTER   XII 

THE    CHRIST    AND   THE    BUDDHA 

THE  study  of  the  life  and  the  character  of  noted 
and  noble  men  is  the  most  helpful  and  inspiring  of  all 
studies.  It  not  only  illustrates  life  at  its  best,  it  also 
fills  men  with  an  ambition  to  pursue  the  same  noble 
purposes  and  to  achieve  the  same  lofty  results  in  life. 
In  presenting  a  brief  glimpse  of  the  two  most  power- 
ful personalities  that  ever  impressed  themselves  upon 
the  world,  I  .desire  to  place  them  side  by  side  that  we 
may  appreciate  the  assonances  and  the  dissonances  of 
their  wonderful  lives  and  rise  through  the  study  into 
a  true  conception  and  love  of  the  most  perfect  Life 
ever  breathed  upon  earth. 

I  have  no  apology  to  offer,  as  a  Christian,  for  com- 
paring the  life  of  our  Lord  with  that  of  any  human 
being;  for,  though  Divine,  He  was  also  supremely 
human ;  and  human  glory  and  achievement  appear  in 
their  fulness  only  when  we  gaze  upon  Him  as  one  of 
the  mighty  human  forces  of  history. 

Christ  and  Buddha  lived, their  brief  lives  upon  earth 

338 


THE  CHRIST  AND  THE  BUDDHA  341 

many  centuries  ago ;  and  yet  never  did  they  grip  so 
many  by  the  magic  of  their  attraction  as  they  do  at 
present.  Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  whole  population 
of  the  world  to-day  acknowledges  the  lordship  of  the 
one  or  the  other  of  these  and  loves  to  be  called  by 
their  names.  The  influence  of  the  one  dominates  all 
the  life  of  the  West,  while  that  of  the  other  is  supreme 
in  the  East.  And  it  is  a  curious  and  interesting  fact 
that  Buddha  has  not  only  been  exalted  as  the  ninth 
incarnation  of  Vishnu  in  the  faith  which  he  aimed  to 
overthrow,  he  has  also  been  adopted  into  the  Roman 
Catholic  Calendar  and  is  worshipped  on  the  271)1  of 
November  as  a  Christian  saint  under  the  title  "  Saint 
Josaphat." 

I  am  also  convinced  that  the  influence  of  the  lives 
and  teachings  of  Buddha  and  Christ  will  react  upon 
each  other  with  ever  increasing  power  during  the 
coming  years.  Indeed,  we  are  now  witnessing  this 
very  influence  developing  before  our  eyes. 

I 

Let  us  first  observe  the  conditions  under  which 
these  two  lived  their  earthly  lives. 

One  was  born  into  royal  prerogatives  and  splendour 
and  was  surrounded  in  youth  with  all  the  luxuries 


342  INDIA:  ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

and  blandishments  of  an  Oriental  court.  The  other, 
though  of  royal  lineage,  was  born  in  poverty,  cradled 
in  a  manger,  earned  a  meagre  subsistence  as  a  carpen- 
ter, and  was  able  to  say  at  the  end  of  His  brief  career 
that  the  foxes  had  holes  and  the  birds  of  the  air 
had  nests,  but  that  He  had  not  where  to  lay  His 
head. 

Sidhartthan  early  married  and  became  a  father,  but 
later  renounced  all  the  pleasures  and  responsibilities 
of  a  grihastan  life.  His  great  renunciation  is  one  of 
the  most  striking  and  impressive  acts  in  the  history  of 
mankind,  and  his  subsequent  asceticism  was  of  the 
most  thorough  and  rigid  type. 

Jesus  of  Nazareth  avoided  the  entanglements  of 
married  life  and  had  a  supreme  contempt  for  the 
wealth  and  the  pomp  of  the  world.  Yet  He  was 
not  an  ascetic.  So  freely  did  He  associate  with  men, 
participating  even  in  their  festivities,  that  His  enemies 
falsely  charged  Him  with  being  a  "glutton  and  a 
winebibber."  He  never  countenanced  the  idea  that 
highest  sainthood  must  come  through  asceticism. 

He  found  His  intimates  not  among  the  ascetic 
Essenes,  but  among  householders  and  men  of  affairs. 

Both  these  great  souls  were  similarly  oppressed  by 
the  prevalence  and  the  tyranny  of  an  exclusive  cere- 


THE  CHRIST  AND  THE   BUDDHA  343 

monialism.  In  the  one  case,  it  was  the  innumerable 
bloody  sacrifices  and  the  all-embracing  and  crushing 
ritual  of  the  Brahmans  which  roused  the  anger  and 
opposition  of  Gautama ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
myriad  rites,  the  childish  ceremonies,  and  the  hollow 
religious  hypocrisy  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  filled 
Jesus  with  hatred  and  led  Him  to  a  denunciation  of 
that  whole  class.  "  Woe  unto  you,  Scribes  and  Phari- 
sees," was  the  oft-repeated  expression  of  wrath  which 
He  heaped  upon  them. 

Thus  the  religions  which  both  established  were,  in 
part,  reactions  from  the  religious  excesses  and  errors 
of  the  days  in  which  they  lived. 

It  is  strange  that  neither  Christ  nor  Buddha  left 
any  writings  behind  them,  even  though  writing  was  a 
known  art  in  their  times.  Their  mighty  influence 
was  through  oral  teaching  and  example.  This  was 
different  from  the  method  of  other  such  world-leaders 
as  Moses,  Mohammed,  and  Confucius.  It  proves  that 
whenever  any  one  has  truths  of  saving  power  to  com- 
mit to  the  world,  there  are  many  who,  as  his  messen- 
gers, are  ready  to  convey  them.  Better  indeed  than 
to  convey  one's  thoughts  by  printed  page  is  it  to  im- 
part them  through  the  living  voice  to  disciples  who 
will  thrill  the  world  by  the  message  coloured  by  their 


344  INDIA:    ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

own  mind  and  transfigured  by  their  own  enthusiasm. 
This  was  the  method  of  Christ  and  Buddha. 

Both  were  surrounded  by  an  Oriental  environment. 
Their  antecedents  and  their  prepossessions  were  of 
the  East,  eastern ;  and  at  their  births  they  were  intro- 
duced to  scenes  and  began  to  breathe  the  atmosphere 
of  the  Orient.  All  the  great  founders  of  the  World 
Religions  were  men  of  the  East.  This  was  doubtless 
because  the  East  kept  more  closely  than  the  West  in 
touch  with  deepest  religious  thought  and  was  ani- 
mated with  highest  religious  emotions  and  heavenly 
aspirations.  Certainly  the  world  owes  more  to  an- 
cient Asia  for  its  religious  life  and  spiritual  attain- 
ments than  to  all  the  other  continents  put  together. 
And  Asia  is  to  be  thanked,  above  all,  because  she 
gave  to  mankind  the  Christ  and  the  Buddha.  For 
the  eastern  flavour  of  their  messages  and  the  Oriental 
tints  of  their  life  we  are  deeply  grateful.  To  those  of 
the  West,  these  have  always  brought  quiet  restraint 
and  a  hallowed,  peaceful  repose  to  counteract  the 
hurry  and  worry  of  life  to  which  they  are  so  much 
exposed  and  which  are  a  part  of  their  very  being. 


THE  CHRIST  AND  THE  BUDDHA  345 

II 

The  Common  Principles  which  controlled  their  Lives 

Both  were  men  of  deepest  sincerity.  All  sham 
and  hypocrisy  were  foreign  to  their  nature;  they  held 
insincerity  in  any  one  to  be  the  meanest  and  most 
deadly  sin.  To  this  intense  loyalty  to  the  truth, 
Jesus  bore  emphatic  testimony  by  an  early  martyr- 
dom ;  while  Gautama  gave  the  same  unwavering 
witness  by  a  long  and  holy  life.  They  both  stood 
in  the  midst  of  communities  which  were  rotten  with 
hypocrisy  and  which  were  using  religion  as  a  sacred 
garb  of  duplicity  and  were  raising  temples  of  dis- 
honesty to  enraged  deity.  They  stood  like  prophets 
in  the  wilderness  and  pronounced  woe  upon  all 
hypocrites. 

Moreover,  both  Christ  and  Buddha  were  profoundly 
ethical  in  their  teaching.  They  found  that  humanity 
was  not  only  rotten  with  insincerity,  it  was  also  de- 
ceiving itself  with  the  vain  delusion  that  moral  in- 
tegrity and  ethical  nobility  can  be  bartered  for  a  mul- 
titudinous ceremonial.  Men  have  always  been  prone 
to  exalt  ritual  in  proportion  as  they  have  neglected 
the  eternal  demands  of  conscience  and  the  ethical 
foundation  of  character.  The  myriad-tongued  cere- 


346  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

monial  of  the  Brahmans  of  twenty-five  centuries  ago 
was  the  old  evasion  of  righteousness  in  human  life. 
Gautama  saw  this,  and  his  noble  soul  rebelled  against 
a  faith  which  proclaimed  that  salvation  was  a  thing  of 
outward  religious  forms  and  not  of  the  heart  within. 

"  To  cease  from  all  sin, 
To  get  virtue, 
To  cleanse  our  own  heart, 
This  is  the  religion  of  the  Buddhas." 

These  were  the  words  with  which  he  enunciated 
his  new  principles  and  carried  forward  his  campaign 
of  reaction  against  the  faith  of  his  fathers.  Nothing 
less  than,  or  apart  from,  purity  of  the  soul  within 
satisfied  his  requirement. 

Indeed,  he  exalted  so  much  the  more  highly  this 
banner  of  heart  purity  and  holiness,  the  less  he  had 
to  say  of  the  spiritual  claims  upon  the  soul.  He  had 
tried  elaborate  ceremonial  and  had  found  it  wanting ; 
he  had  practised  the  most  severe  religious  austerities, 
but  they  had  availed  him  little.  In  the  quiet  light 
which  had  dawned  upon  him  under  the  sacred  Boh 
tree  he  found  that  nothing  wrought  so  mightily  and 
beneficently  as  Dharma,  or  righteousness. 

"  The  real  treasure  is  that  laid  by  man  or  woman, 
Through  charity  or  piety,  te»perance  and  self-control. 


THE  CHRIST  AND  THE   BUDDHA  347 

The  treasure  thus  hid  is  secure,  and  passes  not  away ; 
.     .     .     this  a  man  takes  with  him." 

"  Let  no  man  think  lightly  of  sin,  saying  in  his  heart, '  It  cannot 
overtake  me.'" 

These  are  only  a  few  of  the  many  noble  ethical 
deliverances  of  this  great  man's  creed. 

And  during  all  his  life,  subsequent  to  the  great 
renunciation,  he  embodied  in  himself  the  ethical 
beauty  of  all  that  he  had  taught. 

And  what  shall  I  say  of  Jesus,  the  Christ?  In 
the  noble  integrity  of  His  heart,  in  the  sublime  ethi- 
cal ideals  which  He  ever  exalted,  in  the  moral  recti- 
tude which  He  practised  and  enjoined  upon  all  His 
followers,  who  was  like  unto  Him  ?  In  His  day,  also, 
men  had  forgotten  the  true  foundation  of  character; 
and  the  religious  leaders  of  the  people  were  placing 
supreme  emphasis  upon  human  traditions  and  upon 
man-made  rites  as  the  way  of  salvation. 

They  "  tithed  the  mint  and  the  cummin "  and  forgot 
the  weightier  matters  of  the  law.  To  eat  with  un- 
washed hands,  to  consort  with  a  Samaritan,  to  carry 
a  load  or  raise  a  sheep  from  the  ditch  on  the  Sabbath, 
—  this  was  a  sin  which,  to  the  Pharisees,  would  weigh 
a  man  down  to  hell  itself ;  while  to  lie  or  to  use  other 
foul  language,  or  to  trample  under  foot  the  whole 


348  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

decalogue  was,  by  comparison,  a  venial  offence.  The 
whole  moral  code  was  rendered  impotent  by  them, 
while  ceremonial  cleansing  was  the  be-all  and  end-all 
of  their  system.  Christ  was  daily  thrown  into  conflict 
with  these  "blind  leaders  of  the  blind";  His  soul 
abhorred  their  whole  religious  system.  He  charac- 
terized them  as  "  whited  sepulchres."  He  showed  that 
it  is  the  heart  which  defiles  a  man,  "  for  out  of  the 
heart  proceed  evil  thoughts,  murders,  adulteries,  forni- 
cations, thefts,  false  witness,  blasphemies."  "  Blessed," 
says  He,  "are  the  pure  in  heart,  for  they  shall  see  God." 
"  It  was  said  to  them  of  old  thou  shalt  not  kill ; "  but 
Christ  equally  prohibited  anger,  the  cause  of  murder. 
He  not  only  denounced  adultery,  but  the  lustful  look 
which  is  the  source  of  adultery. 

To  His  followers  He  said  "  unless  your  righteous- 
ness exceed  the  righteousness  of  the  Scribes  and 
Pharisees  ye  shall  not  enter  into  the  kingdom  of 
heaven."  He  prayed  the  Father  that  He  would  sanc- 
tify His  own,  and  added  that  for  their  sakes  He  sanc- 
tified Himself.  Holiness  was  a  passion  with  Him, 
and  at  the  basis  of  His  teaching  He  enjoined  moral 
cleanness  and  ethical  integrity.  And  His  life  in  this, 
as  in  other  things,  was  a  perfect  exhibition  of  the 
virtues  which  He  taught.  And  from  that  day  to  this 


THE   CHRIST  AND  THE   BUDDHA  349 

His  precept  and  example  have  mutually  supported 
each  other.  In  Him  were  wedded  faith  and  con- 
science, piety  and  character.  So  that,  where  Christ 
is  best  known  and  most  loyally  followed  to-day,  there 
do  we  find  a  perfect  sense  of  human  relations  and  a 
supreme  desire  after  ethical  perfection. 

Furthermore,  these  two  great  souls  were  consumed 
with  a  broad  and  universal  chanty.  Their  environ- 
ment was  perhaps  the  most  averse  to  general  benevo- 
lence that  the  world  could  then  show.  In  India, 
there  had  already  grown  to  great  power  the  caste 
system  with  its  multiplying  ramifications.  Then,  as 
now,  it  narrowed  the  sympathies  of  men,  it  arrayed 
one  class  against  another,  it  cultivated  pride  and  fos- 
tered mutual  distrust  and  dissension. 

When  Sakya  Muni  came  upon  the  scene,  he  saw 
the  terribly  divisive  system  sending  down  its  root  like 
the  banyan  tree  on  all  sides  and  absorbing  the  life  and 
thought  of  the  people.  It  repelled  him,  and,  with  all 
his  mighty  intellectual  and  moral  energy,  he  attacked 
it.  He  proclaimed  all  men  brothers  and  worthy  of 
human  sympathy,  love,  and  respect.  He  opened  the 
door  of  his  faith  to  all  classes  on  equal  terms.  He 
vehemently  opposed  every  effort  to  divide  men  except 
upon  the  ground  of  character.  He  enjoined  upon  his 


350  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

disciples  not  only  love  and  kindness  to  all  men,  he 
also  insisted  upon  a  similar  attitude  toward  all  forms 
of  lower  life. 

The  fact  that  Buddhism  is  to-day  one  of  the  three 
great  Missionary  Faiths  of  the  world,  seeking  all  men 
that  are  in  darkness,  is  the  best  proof  that  the  founder 
of  that  faith  had  a  heart  which  embraced  the  whole 
realm  of  life  in  its  love.  He  felt  that  no  man,  however 
humble  or  however  far  removed  in  ties  of  race  and 
kinship,  should  be  deprived  of  the  blessings  of  his  love 
and  sympathy.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  nearly 
all  past  religious  reformers  in  India  —  both  those  inside 
and  outside  the  pale  of  Brahmanism  —  were  anti-caste 
in  their  sympathies  and  teaching.  But  it  is  only 
Buddha  who  consistently  maintained  the  broad  foun- 
dation of  a  universal  brotherhood  and  incorporated  it 
into  his  faith  as  a  cardinal  principle. 

In  like  manner,  Jesus  of  Nazareth  lived  His  earthly 
life  at  a  time  of  narrow  sympathies,  and  with  people 
who  were  among  the  most  exclusive  that  ever  lived  on 
earth.  The  Jews  believed  themselves  to  be  the  spe- 
cially favoured  sons  of  Heaven.  And,  what  was  more 
they  thought  that  they  were  exalted  because  they  were 
worthy,  because  they  excelled  all  other  people.  Hence, 
they  stood  aloof  from  other  nationalities  and  despised 


THE   CHRIST  AND  THE  BUDDHA  351 

them  as  their  inferiors,  a  social  and  physical  contact 
with  whom  would  be  pollution.  There  is  in  many 
respects  a  strange  correspondence  between  the  Jewish 
social  code  of  twenty  centuries  ago  and  that  of  Hindu- 
ism to-day  —  the  same  haughty  mien  and  abjectness 
of  spirit  —  the  aloofness  of  pride  and  the  cringing 
meanness  of  social  bondage  —  representing  the  two 
extremes  of  society.  Christ  also  turned  His  face  like 
a  flint  against  this  mean  artificial  classification  of  men. 
He  had  a  burning  contempt  for  the  proud  Pharisee 
who  lived  upon  the  husks  of  his  own  contempt  of 
others,  and  who  trampled  under  foot  men  that  were 
infinitely  superior  to  himself,  so  far  as  character  was 
concerned.  But  He  consorted  often  with  the  outcast 
Publican  who  revealed  an  aspiration  after  better  things. 
And  He  even  chose  men  who  were  thus  socially  ostra- 
cized to  enter  His  own  inner  circle  of  disciples  and  to 
be  the  standard-bearers  of  His  cause  upon  earth.  He 
taught  that  the  most  abject  and  socially  submerged 
man  upon  earth  is  a  son  of  God,  and  that  at  his  moral 
and  spiritual  renovation  there  would  be  joy  among  the 
denizens  of  heaven.  And  it  was  while  thinking  of 
this  same  class  that  He  said  unto  His  own,  in  describ- 
ing the  judgment  scene  at  the  last  great  day,  "  Come, 
ye  blessed  of  my  father,  inasmuch  as  ye  have  treated 


352  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE   AND  THOUGHT 

kindly  and  lovingly  one  of  the  least  of  my  brethren  ye 
have  done  it  unto  me,  enter  ye  into  the  joy  of  your 
Lord."  Though  He  was  born  a  Jew,  He  opened  wide 
the  portals  of  His  religion  and  invited  all  men  of  all 
conditions.  "  Come  unto  me,  all  ye  that  are  weary  and 
heavy  laden,  and  I  will  give  you  rest."  He  sent  forth 
His  followers  into  all  lands  to  disciple  and  bring  to 
the  truth  all  nations.  And  in  all  lands  His  method  of 
procedure  has  been  to  reach  first  the  lowest  among 
the  people  and  then  gradually  to  rise  to  the  highest, 
until  He  has  taken  possession  of  the  whole  land.  His 
universal  heart  of  love  took  in  all  men  of  all  social 
strata.  All  that  He  asked  was  that  men  should  come 
to  Him  with  purpose  sincere  and  with  a  longing  for 

light  and  truth. 

Ill 

The  Principles  and  Teachings  which  differentiate 

and  separate  Christ  and  Buddha 
Thus  far  we  have  seen  these  two  great  leaders  of 
men   standing   side   by  side  and  revealing  the  same 
traits  and  principles. 

But  they  also  revealed  fundamental  differences  which 
it  were  well  for  us  to  consider. 

Though  much  united  them,  and  that   when  more 
than  five  centuries  and  thousands  of  miles  held  them 


THE   CHRIST  AND  THE   BUDDHA  353 

apart,  we  also  discover  that  a  gulf  wider  than  that  of 
time  or  space  opened  between  them. 

Their  lives  and  their  doctrines  and  the  faiths  which 
they  promulgated  reveal  strangely  diverse  contentions 
and  tendencies. 

(i)  First  of  all,  and  at  the  root  of  all,  lies  their  atti- 
tude toward  the  Divine  Being.  Jesus  was  preemi- 
nently a  God-intoxicated  Being,  while  the  most  mani- 
fest mental  attitude  of  Gautama  was  his  agnosticism. 
Christ  never  ceased  speaking  of  and  communing  with 
His  Father  in  heaven.  He  was  wont  to  retire  regu- 
larly from  human  society  in  order  that  He  might  enjoy 
the  Heavenly  Presence  whose  very  radiance  shone  in 
and  upon  Him  daily.  He  declared  that  He  did  noth- 
ing without  consulting  with  and  receiving  direction 
from  God.  And  this  was  natural  enough  when  we 
remember  His  declaration  that  He  came  into  the 
world  to  reveal  the  Father  unto  men.  Listen  to  His 
words,  "My  meat  is  to  do  the  will  of  Him  that  sent 
m,e  and  to  finish  His  work."  "The  Father  that 
dwelleth  in  me  doeth  the  work."  "  The  Father  is 
glorified  in  the  Son."  "  I  love  the  Father  and  go  unto 
Him."  "  Believest  thou  not  that  I  am  in  the  Father 
and  the  Father  in  me?"  "Oh,  righteous  Father,  the 
world  hath  not  known  Thee,  but  I  have  known  Thee." 


354  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

In  all  His  expressions  of  oneness  with  God,  of  His 
living  unto  God,  and  of  His  drawing  His  daily  strength 
from  God,  His  experience  was  eminently  unique.  He 
lived  more  in  heaven  than  on  earth  in  those  days  of 
His  incarnation.  Apart  from  any  consideration  of 
His  Divinity,  He  can  truly  be  said  to  be  a  man  of  God 
whose  soul  was  in  harmony  with  the  Father. 

How  different  the  words  and  experiences  of  Gautama 
Rishi !  Many  have  spoken  of  him  as  an  atheist.  I 
do  not  believe  that  he  denied  the  existence  of  God. 
Yet  it  is  evidently  true  that  he  has  no  use  in  his  phi- 
losophy, any  more  than  in  his  religion,  for  a  Divine 
Being.  There  was  doubtless  reason  for  this  in  the 
conditions  of  his  time ;  for  it  may  be  regarded  as  the 
reaction  of  a  strong  mind  against  the  extreme  spirit- 
ualism and  polytheism  of  the  day.  For,  in  those  days, 
the  deep  spirituality  of  the  Brahman  had  overflowed 
its  banks  and  had  created  a  multitudinous  pantheon 
which  repelled  this  man  of  stern  mind.  It  was  to  him 
only  a  short  step  from  a  disbelief  in  the  many  gods  to 
a  doubt  as  to  the  existence  of  any  god.  And  in  this 
agnosticism  he  was  doubtless  aided  by  his  fondness 
for  the  Sankya  school  of  thought,  which  is  Indian 
Agnosticism.  In  any  case,  his  deliverances  and  his 
established  religion,  if  such  it  really  can  be  called,  are 


THE  CHRIST  AND  THE   BUDDHA  355 

such  a  reaction  from  the  Theosophy  of  India  as  to  lead 
one  to  wonder  how,  even  with  all  its  other  excellences, 
it  could  have  become  in  India  a  State  Religion  for 
any  length  of  time.  A  religion  without  a  God,  a  sac- 
rifice, a  priest,  or  a  prayer,  is  certainly  a  dreary  wilder- 
ness to  a  God-seeking  soul.  And  yet,  this  is  what  the 
Buddha  conceived  and  promulgated  among  his  disci- 
ples. Under  the  stress  of  a  growing  consciousness  of 
the  ills  of  this  life  his  mind  did  not,  like  that  of  others, 
rise  to  heaven  for  relief ;  but  his  salvation  was  to  be  a 
self-wrought  one.  With  his  own  right  arm  of  virtue 
he  wished  to  carve  his  way  into  eternal  life  —  or,  shall 
I  say,  eternal  death  ?  Is  it  strange  that  under  such  a 
godless  religious  system  its  votaries  should  react  from 
this  fundamental  error  and  deify  and  worship  that  very 
Buddha  who  had  not  a  place  for  God  in  his  whole 
scheme  of  life? 

At  any  rate,  Christ  and  Buddha  stand  before  us 
in  striking  contrast  in  this  matter;  the  glory  of  the 
teaching  of  the  one  was  that  He  caused  His  adoring 
disciple  to  fall  upon  his  knees  with  uplifted  eye  and 
to  say  in  filial  reverence  and  trust,  "  Our  Father  who 
art  in  heaven."  While  the  other  taught  his  follow- 
ers to  lean  only  upon  self,  and  to  seek  speedy  relief 
from  life  itself,  declaring  that  heaven  returned  only 


INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

an  empty,  mocking  echo  to  the  helpless  wail  of  the 
human  soul. 

(2)  Corresponding  to  this  difference  was  another 
difference  in  their  conception  of  human  life.  Jesus 
maintained  that  the  human  soul  came  from  God, 
was  made  for  God,  and  that  God  Himself  was  for- 
ever seeking  to  bring  it  unto  Himself.  According 
to  His  theory  of  life,  man  is  not  left  alone  at  any 
stage  in  his  career.  He  may  decline  to  entertain 
God  in  his  life.  He  may  lead  a  life  of  rebellion 
against  his  Maker  and  Saviour;  he  may  even  deny 
the  very  existence  of  the  Father  of  his  being.  But 
God,  in  the  riches  of  His  infinite  patience,  does  not 
desert  him  to  his  own  base  thought  and  life.  He 
follows  him  like  a  shepherd  searching  for  his  lost 
sheep.  He  longs  for  his  return  like  a  tender,  for- 
giving father  for  the  return  of  his  prodigal  son. 
Human  life,  according  to  this  view,  may  be  mean 
and  sordid  and  may  be  spent  in  the  grossest  sin; 
but  there  is  hope.  All  is  not  lost  while  there  is  a 
spark  of  life  left.  God  is  still  seeking  and  trying 
to  bring  the  soul  to  new  life.  The  million  agents 
of  His  loving  will  conspire  to  help  man;  and  so  the 
possibilities  of  his  life  are  still  great.  Thus,  to  our 
Lord  Christ,  the  vision  of  human  life  was  a  bright 


THE  CHRIST  AND  THE   BUDDHA  357 

and  optimistic  one.  God  will  not  leave  man  to  him- 
self. He  will  bring  all  the  resources  of  heaven  and 
of  earth  to  the  work  of  saving  him.  "  God  is  in 
His  heaven,  All's  right  with  the  world."  Yes,  all 
is  hopeful  for  man  because  the  Father  is  still  seek- 
ing him. 

How  different  from  this  was  Gautama  Rishi's 
view  of  human  life.  According  to  him,  man  is  a 
lone,  helpless  creature  tossed  on  the  sea  of  destiny. 
He  is  the  only  captain  and  steersman  of  his  barque, 
and  his  own  reason  is  his  only  compass ;  he  must 
battle  alone  with  the  waves  of  circumstances  and 
find  for  himself  the  unknown  harbour  of  peace. 
There  is  no  heaven  above  to  hear  his  cry,  no  help 
or  redemption  outside  of  self.  Is  it  a  wonder  that 
life  is  a  weariness,  and  existence  itself  an  unspeak- 
able burden  to  such  a  man? 

Thus  the  Buddha  sought  in  vain  for  light  and 
cheer  in  life,  and  pessimism  became  to  him,  as  it 
continues  to  be  to  his  followers,  the  very  atmos- 
phere of  life.  Even  as  in  Dante's  vision  of  the  In- 
ferno, so  in  the  Temple  of  Buddha's  scheme  of  life 
there  is  inscribed  above  its  portals  the  words :  "  Aban- 
don hope  all  ye  who  enter  here." 

I  care  not  who  the  man  may  be,  I  humbly  main- 


358  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

tain  that  his  scheme  of  life  is  seriously  wrong  if  it 
be  a  cheerless,  uninspiring  one ;  and  it  is  perfectly 
natural  that  men  should  prefer  to  follow  a  confi- 
dent, buoyant  leader  rather  than  a  heartless,  de- 
spondent one.  If  God  rules  over  the  destinies  of 
man,  we  have  a  right  to  expect  that  success  and 
blessing  will  crown  the  efforts  of  the  sincere  seeker 
after  a  better  life.  Man  has  received  life  not  that 
he  may  destroy  it,  but  that  he  may  cultivate  it  and 
find  in  it  life  abundant. 

A  young  mother  whose  child  had  died  carried 
the  dead  body  to  Buddha,  and,  doing  homage  to 
him,  said,  "Lord  and  Master,  do  you  know  any 
medicine  that  will  be  good  for  my  child?"  "Yes," 
said  the  teacher,  "  I  know  of  some.  Get  me  a 
handful  of  mustard  seed."  But  when  the  poor  girl 
was  hurrying  away  to  procure  it,  he  added,  "  I  re- 
quire mustard  seed  from  a  house  where  no  son, 
husband,  parent,  or  slave  has  died."  "  Very  good," 
said  the  girl,  and  went  to  ask  for  it,  carrying  still 
the  dead  child  astride  on  her  hip.  The  people 
said,  "  Here  is  mustard  seed ; "  but  when  she  asked, 
"  Has  there  died  a  son,  a  husband,  a  parent,  or  a 
slave  in  this  house  ? "  they  replied :  "  Lady,  what  is 
this  that  you  ask?  The  living  are  few,  but  the 


THE   CHRIST  AND  THE   BUDDHA  359 

dead  are  many ! "  Then  she  went  to  other  homes, 
but  one  said,  "  I  have  lost  my  son ; "  another,  "  I 
have  lost  my  parents ; "  another,  "  I  have  lost  my 
slave."  At  last,  not  being  able  to  find  a  single 
house  where  no  one  had  died,  she  began  to  think, 
"  This  is  a  heavy  task  that  I  am  on."  And  as  her 
mind  cleared  she  summoned  up  her  resolution,  left 
the  dead  child  in  a  house,  and  returned  to  Buddha. 
"  Have  you  procured  the  mustard  seed  ? "  he  asked. 
"  I  have  not,"  she  replied.  "  The  people  of  the  vil- 
lage told  me,  '  The  living  are  few,  but  the  dead  are 
many.'"  Then  Buddha  said,  "You  thought  you 
alone  had  lost  a  son;  the  law  of  death  is  that 
among  all  living  creatures  there  is  no  permanence." 
Little  comfort  in  these  words ! 

Of  course,  we  can  see  how  these  two  conflicting 
views  of  life  found  acceptance  and  expression  in 
these  two  great  leaders  of  mankind.  For,  to  Jesus, 
the  keyword  of  life  was  divine  grace  or  atonement, 
while  to  Gautama  it  was  Karma  —  that  word  which 
has  for  so  many  centuries  been  to  all  India  the 
truest  expression  of  its  philosophy  and  of  its  life. 

Christ  taught  that  the  grace  of  God  was  at  the 
service  of  every  man  for  his  success  in  this  life 
and  for  his  redemption  in  the  world  to  come.  He 


360  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

ever  emphasized  the  inspiring  message  that  God's 
work  and  man's  effort  constitute  the  warp  and  woof 
of  the  life  of  every  man.  In  His  whole  scheme  of 
salvation  there  is  no  place  for  discouragement;  for, 
walking  through  the  path  of  life  hand  in  hand  with 
God,  man  can  overthrow  every  enemy  to  his  prog- 
ress and  achieve  the  best  and  highest  in  God's 
purposes  for  him. 

But  when  the  Buddha  adopted  the  doctrine  of 
Karma  as  the  foundation  of  life,  he  and  his  system 
were  doomed  to  despondency,  gloom,  and  discour- 
agement. It  is  indeed  a  noble  truth  that  every 
man  must  drink,  to  its  last  dregs,  the  fruit  of  his 
own  action  —  that  the  law  of  Karma  works  with 
relentless  force  in  every  life  in  the  world.  Only 
let  us  understand  that  God  may  enter  into  each 
life  to  enable  man  to  face  successfully  that  law,  and 
it  is  all  right.  But  condemn  man  to  everlasting 
isolation  ;  cut  away  from  him  every  ray  of  Divine 
help,  and  the  working  out  of  his  Karma  becomes 
a  terrible  and  an  almost  unending  tragedy  —  a 
Sisyphean  task  with  no  hope  of  release  save  in  the 
wiping  out  of  life  itself.  And  this  is  what  the  great 
Soul  of  the  East  believed  and  taught.  He  faced 
boldly  the  problem.  He  had,  at  the  beginning, 


THE  CHRIST  AND  THE  BUDDHA  361 

ignored  the  very  existence  of  God,  and  thus  denied 
himself  the  least  hope  of  external  aid  in  his  own 
emancipation ;  and  thus  he  held  that  stern,  cruel, 
relentless  Karma  became  the  all-controlling  and 
universal  law  of  life. 

To  a  Christian,  among  the  most  pathetic  words 
ever  spoken  are  those  spoken  by  Buddha  to  his 
beloved  cousin  and  disciple  as  death  drew  near  — 
"  O !  Anantha,  .  .  .  My  journey  is  drawing  to  its 
close.  I  have  reached  eighty  years,  and  just  as  a 
worn-out  cart  can  only  with  much  care  be  made  to 
move  along,  so  my  body  can  only  be  kept  going  with 
difficulty.  ...  In  future  be  ye  to  yourselves  your  own 
light,  your  own  refuge;  seek  no  other  refuge.  .  .  . 
Look  not  to  any  one  but  yourselves  as  a  refuge? 

And  that  which  farther,  and  very  naturally, 
widens  the  gulf  which  separates  them  is  their  view 
of  the  adequacy  or  inadequacy  of  the  present  hu- 
man life  to  satisfy  the  laws  of  their  being. 

The  law  which  Jesus  believed  to  prevail,  and 
which  He  constantly  promulgated  and  emphasized, 
was  that  of  the  finality  of  the  human  life  —  that 
man  has  once  only  to  pass  through  this  earthly  life 
and  that  then  comes  death,  which  introduces  him 
to  an  eternal  future  corresponding  with  the  char- 


362  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

acter  of  his  choices  and  life  on  earth.  According 
to  Him,  this  brief  earthly  existence,  which  will  not 
be  repeated,  is  a  training  school  for  the  glorious 
life  beyond.  Blessed  is  he  who  faithfully  submits 
himself  to  this  training  and  passes  through  the  gate 
of  death  prepared  for  an  immortality  of  joy  in  God's 
presence  beyond. 

Indeed,  Jesus  never  gives  the  first  intimation  of 
any  future  birth  or  life,  save  that  which  would  be 
permanent  and  eternal  in  heaven  or  hell. 

He  felt  the  adequacy  of  this  life  as  a  determiner 
of  the  eternal  destiny  of  all  men.  And  He  felt 
that  the  salvation  which  He  wrought  and  offered 
to  all  was  able  to  carry  man  through  the  single 
portal  of  death  into  unending  bliss.  Why  another 
entrance  into  this  world,  if  by  passing  through  the 
world  God  could  bring  into  the  life  the  seed  and 
power  of  His  own  grace  and  life  which  would 
blossom  and  bear  fruit  in  the  soul  throughout  eter- 
nity ?  "  Marvel  not,"  He  sayeth,  "  the  hour  cometh 
in  which  all  that  are  dead  shall  hear  his  voice  and 
shall  come  forth;  they  that  have  done  good  into 
the  resurrection  of  life;  and  they  that  have  done 
evil  into  the  resurrection  of  judgment."  And  as 
He  described  the  final  judgment  upon  all  men  after 


THE   CHRIST  AND  THE  BUDDHA  363 

one  earthly  life  He  says  that  "  these  shall  go  away 
into  eternal  punishment,  but  the  righteous  into 
eternal  life."  Moreover,  in  describing  the  condition 
of  the  dead  He  makes  the  faithful  Abraham  say  to 
the  soul  of  a  dead  sinner,  "  Between  us  and  you 
there  is  a  great  gulf  fixed  that  they  who  would 
pass  hence  to  you  may  not  be  able  to  pass  and 
that  you  may  not  cross  from  thence  to  us."  That 
is,  He  claimed  that  the  life  which  we  live  here  so 
fixes  the  destiny  of  men  that  eternity  will  carry  its 
impress.  Hence  the  urgency  and  the  supreme  im- 
portance of  this  one  life  to  all  men.  The  universal 
succession,  according  to  His  teaching,  is  life,  death, 
resurrection,  judgment,  and  eternal  reward. 

To  the  Buddha,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  held  that 
man  is  the  only  architect  of  his  own  destiny  and 
that  he  must  therefore  abide  the  working  of  his 
Karma,  a  single  brief  apprenticeship  in  the  school 
of  life  seemed  altogether  inadequate  as  a  test  of 
character  and  as  a  reliable  foundation  for  the  edifice 
of  one's  eternal  destiny,  or  as  a  basis  for  the  one 
irrevocable  judgment.  It  is  but  natural,  therefore, 
that  this  great  Indian  Rishi  should  have  adopted 
as  his  own  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  or  trans- 
migration, and  that  he  should  add  great  emphasis 


364  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

to  it.  To  him,  life  was  a  penitentiary  rather  than 
a  school,  a  place,  or  an  occasion,  for  eating  the 
fruits  of  past  action  rather  than  a  training  for  the 
future  eternity  which  awaits  every  one. 

It  is  true  that  Gautama  must  have  had  some 
idea  of  the  corrective  influence  and  disciplinary 
character  of  this  earthly  existence;  for  there  is  a 
quiet  assumption  that  in  some  unexplained  and 
unintelligible  way  the  soul  is  improved  by  this 
multitudinous  process  of  reincarnation.  And  yet  I 
fail  to  see  any  reason  for  expecting  such  a  develop- 
ment. Philosophically  and  morally,  the  raison  d'etre 
of  the  doctrine  of  reincarnation  is  to  explain  the  in- 
equalities of  life;  and  it  does  it  not,  as  Jesus  would 
do  it,  by  means  of  the  doctrine  of  heredity,  but  by 
the  retributive  power  of  Karma,  or  actions  pursuing 
the  soul  through  successive  births  and  compelling 
it  to  reveal  by  its  conditions  and  reflect  by  its 
experiences  in  each  birth  the  experiences  of  the 
previous  birth.  The  moral  influence  of  such  a 
doctrine  is  rendered  all  but  impossible  by  the  fact 
that  there  is  no  consciousness  (the  true  basis  of 
moral  continuity)  to  connect  one  birth  with  another. 
I  know  of  no  one  but  Mrs.  Besant  who  claims  to 
know  what  his  previous,  assumed  birth  was,  and  I 


THE   CHRIST  AND  THE   BUDDHA  365 

have  not  yet  met  any  one  who  believes  her  claim 
in  this  matter.  There  is  no  moral  discipline  for 
one  in  his  being  punished  for  a  thing  of  which  he 
has  absolutely  no  conscious  knowledge. 

We  must  further  consider  the  character  of  Gau- 
tama's philosophy.  It  was,  as  is  well  known,  thor- 
oughly materialistic  —  the  antipodes  of  the  orthodox 
Hindu  philosophy,  which  is  highly  spiritual.  To 
Buddha,  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a  soul  apart 
from  the  body.  What  was  there,  then,  to  connect 
one  birth  with  another,  according  to  his  teaching  ? 
In  Brahmanism  the  doctrine  of  transmigration  is  at 
this  point  very  clear,  for  there  is  the  eternal  Alma, 
or  self,  to  connect  and  unify  all  its  incarnations. 
But  Gautama,  who  denied  the  separate  existence  of 
the  soul,  maintained  that  it  was  not  the  self,  but 
the  Karma,  which  passed  from  one  birth  to  an- 
other ;  and  thus  there  became  the  oneness  of 
Karma  without  an  identity  of  soul  passing  through 
and  uniting  the  myriad  incarnations  of  the  person 
involved.  How  can  one  substitute  here  a  sameness 
of  Karma  for  identity  of  soul?  Behold,  then,  the 
insuperable  difficulties  which  such  a  materialism 
interposes  to  a  belief  either  in  the  possibility  or  in 
the  wisdom  of  the  doctrine  of  reincarnation. 


366  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

And  yet  let  it  be  remembered  here  that  so  long 
as  one  accepts  the  doctrine  of  Karma  he  cannot 
evade  the  sister  doctrine  of  reincarnation.  They 
belong  to  the  same  system,  and  must  be  accepted 
or  rejected  together. 

If,  however,  we  emphasize  divine  grace  as  an 
element  in  the  solution  of  human  problems  and  in 
the  salvation  of  man,  then  it  is  natural  to  conclude 
that  one  earthly  life  will  suffice  for  God  and  man 
.  together  to  prepare  the  soul  for  the  consummation 
and  beatification  which  awaits  it  beyond  death. 
But  if  the  whole  problem  is  to  be  solved  and  the 
whole  work  of  redemption  achieved  by  man  himself, 
apart  from  God,  then  Buddha  must  have  been 
justified  in  believing  that  an  inconceivable  number 
of  births  and  human  lives  are  necessary  in  order  to 
accomplish  this. 

It  was  just  at  this  point  that  Christ  and  Buddha 
faced  the  opposite  poles.  And  it  is  just  here,  for 
this  very  reason,  that  the  faiths  which  they  pro- 
mulgated represent,  the  one  the  perpetual  buoyancy 
and  cheer  of  youth,  and  the  other  the  weariness  of 
discouraged  age. 

Christianity  claims  to  do  its  work  for  the  soul, 
so  far  as  settling  its  destiny  is  concerned,  in  the 


THE  CHRIST  AND  THE  BUDDHA  367 

brief  life  of  a  few  years;  and  under  the  inspiring 
influence  of  this  conviction  the  pulse  quickens, 
youthful  hope  and  energy  multiply,  and  the  whole 
soul  is  kindled  by  a  close  vision  of  its  speedy 
triumph  and  release.  The  Buddhist,  on  the  other 
hand,  knows  that  it  is  a  long,  lonely  conflict  —  the 
interminably  long  processions  of  births  weary  him 
and  the  dim  vision  of  a  release  which  is  far  away 
brings  no  inspiration.  Life  palls  upon  him,  courage 
fails  him,  his  steps  grow  shorter  and  his  pace 
slackens. 

(3)  This  brings  us  to  the  ideals  which  these  two 
world-leaders  entertained.  Often  men's  ideals  are  a 
better  revelation  of  their  life  and  character  than  are 
their  achievements.  These  ideals  which  I  wish  to 
point  out  are  two  —  that  of  inner  attainment  and 
that  of  final  consummation. 

And  what  was  the  chief  ambition  for  personal 
achievement  sought  by  Jesus  and  Gautama?  I  be- 
lieve that  the  very  names  which  they  acquired  and 
which  are  at  the  head  of  this  chapter  answer  this 
question  for  us.  "  Christ "  and  "  Buddha  "  are  not 
the  personal  names  given  in  infancy,  nor  are  they 
tribal  designations.  They  primarily  represent  their 
official  titles.  "  Christ "  means  "  the  Anointed  One," 


368  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

and  "Buddha"  signifies  "the  Enlightened  One"  — 
the  one  is  a  term  expressive  of  spiritual  powers  for 
service,  while  the  other  means  intellectual  enlight- 
enment for  communion.  One  sought  and  found 
the  baptism  of  the  spirit  of  God  which  touched  and 
transfigured  His  character;  the  other  was  seeking 
more  light  on  the  problems  of  life ;  and  for  that 
light  he  sought  with  a  wonderful  longing  and  per- 
severance until  the  dawn  broke  on  that  remarkable 
day  under  the  sacred  Boh  tree  and  he  found  the 
light  and  was  hence  called  "  the  Enlightened  One." 

Thus,  in  the  Christ-life,  the  emphasis  was  upon 
ethical  and  spiritual  attainment,  while,  in  Buddha,  the 
thing  sought  was  the  clear  vision  and  transcendent 
illumination. 

Let  me  not  be  misunderstood.  There  is  a  sense  in 
which  the  consecration  and  the  vision  are  in  the  same 
line.  It  was  Christ  Himself  that  said,  "  This  is  eternal 
life.  tr»  know  Thee  the  only  true  God  and  Jesus  Christ 
whom  Thou  hast  sent."  Spiritual  knowledge  is  the 
pathway  to  the  highest  life  —  it  is  life  itself.  It  must 
be,  in  large  part,  acquired  through  spiritual  experience. 

At  the  same  time,  it  is  an  interesting  fact  that  Buddha 
laid,  as  India  has  always  laid,  emphasis  —  undue  em- 
phasis—  upon  knowledge  as  the  consummation  to 


THE   CHRIST  AND  THE   BUDDHA  369 

be  sought.  Brahma  Gnana  is  the  summun  bonum  of 
life.  To  rightly  know  myself  in  my  relationship,  this, 
they  say,  is  the  only  qualification  for  beatification.  On 
the  other  hand,  Jesus  insisted  always  upon  a  right 
moral  and  spiritual  attitude  and  relationship  to  God  as 
the  highest  point  of  human  attainment  in  life.  Listen 
to  the  beatitudes  which  he  uttered  :  "  Blessed  are  the 
poor  in  spirit;  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 
Blessed  are  they  that  mourn ;  for  they  shall  be  com- 
forted. Blessed  are  the  meek;  for  they  shall  inherit 
the  earth.  Blessed  are  they  that  hunger  and  thirst 
after  righteousness;  for  they  shall  be  filled.  Blessed 
are  the  merciful ;  for  they  shall  obtain  mercy.  Blessed 
are  the  pure  in  heart;  for  they  shall  see  God. 
Blessed  are  the  peacemakers;  for  they  shall  be  called 
sons  of  God.  Blessed  are  they  that  have  been  per- 
secuted for  righteousness'  sake ;  for  theirs  is  the  king- 
dom of  heaven." 

These  are  the  beatitudes  of  His  Kingdom,  and  all 
refer  to  the  spiritual  graces  which  He  Himself  exem- 
plified and  inculcated,  and  none  refer  to  enlightenment. 

Thus  in  both  we  have,  if  not  a  contrast,  a  different 
outlook,  which  has  not  only  impressed  the  student 
with  a  sense  of  divergence;  but  that  which  is  more 
important  —  it  has  given  to  the  devotees  of  these  two 


2B 


370  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

faiths  widely  different  aspirations,  and  has  given  to  the 
two  types  of  lives  produced  very  dissimilar  traits. 

But,  that  which  is  of  more  consequence,  in  these 
ideals,  is  their  conception  of  what  life  tends  to  and 
must  ultimately  attain  unto.  The  final  consummation 
of  life  meant  nought  else  to  Jesus  than  God-likeness, 
which  He  called  "Eternal  Life."  To  have  grown  to 
the  perfection  of  those  moral  and  spiritual  character- 
istics which  adorn  God  Himself;  to  have  the  human 
will  so  subdued  and  directed  until  it  runs  parallel  with 
the  Divine  will ;  to  have  the  soul  consumed  with  a  love 
of  all  that  He  loves  and  with  an  abhorrence  of  all  that 
He  hates,  —  this  is  life  indeed  and  the  highest  realiza- 
tion of  the  human  soul.  Yea,  more,  to  pass  out  of  this 
life  into  the  conscious  bliss  and  eternal  felicity  of  the 
life  to  come,  to  dwell  with  God  —  one  with  Him  in 
purpose  and  character,  and  yet  living  a  separate  con- 
scious existence,  basking  in  the  eternal  sunshine  of 
His  Presence  and  favour,  —  this  is  the  fulness  of 
blessing  which  Christ  presented  before  His  own  as 
the  end  to  be  sought  and  the  consummation  which 
God  placed  within  their  reach. 

On  the  other  hand,  Nirvana  is  the  word  which  holds 
condensed  the  whole  realm  of  Buddha's  ideals.  It  is 
not  my  purpose  to  discuss  the  original  meaning  of  this 


THE   CHRIST  AND  THE  BUDDHA  371 

word.  I  gladly  concede  that  it  meant  a  state  of  moral 
achievement  when  the  powers  of  the  soul  were  at 
equilibrium  and  when  resultant  peace  pervaded  the 
life.  But  we  also  know  that  it  meant,  preeminently, 
that  state  in  which  the  soul  had  passed  beyond  contact 
with  body,  in  which  contact  alone  it  found  conscious- 
ness and  sensation  and  human  activity ;  when  the  soul, 
freed  from  births,  had  returned  to  its  elemental  con-, 
dition  of  semi-nothingness,  with  neither  thought,  emo- 
tion, nor  volition.  This  was  a  condition  in  which  was 
found  only  the  negative  blessing  of  release  from  the 
turbulence  and  surging  distresses  of  life.  Without 
calling  it  non-existence,  we  claim  that  it  is  wanting  in 
every  element  that  we  connect,  or  can  conceive  con- 
nected, with  human  existence. 

There  is  nothing  in  it  to  inspire  hope  nor  to  invite 
cheer.  All  we  can  do  in  its  presence  is  to  ask  —  is 
this  all  that  man,  the  flower  of  God's  universe,  is  to 
arrive  at  ?  Is  there  nothing  better  for  him  than  to  end 
his  long,  dreary  existence  in  such  an  abject  failure  ? 
Must  he  descend  from  the  plain  of  even  a  wretched 
human  life  to  this  the  lowest  reach  of  existence,  if  such 
we  must  call  it  ? 

In  the  eyes  of  Christ,  there  issues  out  of  the  mighty 
conflict  of  life  a  purified,  glorified  human  being  fit  to 


372  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

dwell  forever  in  the  presence  of  His  Father  and  adopted 
to  enjoy  that  presence  for  evermore.  To  Buddha,  this 
same  human  life  ends  in  failure  and  must  rest  forever 
under  the  dark  pall  of  oblivion,  and  robbed  by  Nirvana 
of  all  the  possibilities  of  good  and  of  joy  that  were 
implanted  in  it. 

In  the  absence  of  higher  satisfaction,  all  that  Buddha 
could  do  was  to  glory  in  his  achievements,  because  of 
their  pervasive  influence  upon  the  lives  of  others  during 
all  future  time.  We  might  imagine  him  joining  with 
George  Eliot  in  her  noble  aspiration :  — 

"  O  !  may  I  join  the  choir  invisible 
Of  those  immortal  dead  who  live  again 
In  minds  made  better  by  their  presence  :  live 
In  pulses  stirred  to  generosity, 
In  deeds  of  daring  rectitude,  in  scorn 
For  miserable  aims  that  end  with  self, 
In  thoughts  sublime  that  pierce  the  nightlike  stars, 
And  with  their  mild  persistence  urge  man's  search 
To  vaster  issues  .  .  . 
This  is  life  to  come." 

But  Christ  gave  us  a  larger  hope  and  a  loftier 
purpose  than  this,  even  the  conscious  possession  of 
abundant  life  ourselves  and  the  growing  knowledge  of 
the  boundless  good  which  our  earthly  life  has  done  for 
others.  To  live  in  men  is  joy  indeed ;  but  that  involves 


THE  CHRIST  AND  THE  BUDDHA  373 

an  ability  to  feel  that  joy ;  and  this,  again,  is  a  part 
only  of  the  Eternal  Life  which  He  gives  to  all  who 
believe  in  Him. 

It  is  His  disciple  only  who  can  say:  — 
"  Beloved,  now  are  we  the  Sons  of  God.     But  we 
know  not  what  we  shall  be ;  but  we  know  that  when 
He  shall  appear  we  shall  be  like  Him,  for  we  shall  see 
Him  as  He  is." 


CHAPTER  XIII 

MODERN    RELIGIOUS    MOVEMENT 

IN  matters  of  faith,  India  has  always  been  ultra- 
conservative.  This  is  largely  owing,  not  to  any 
fettering  of  thought,  but  rather  to  the  Hindu  Caste 
System,  which'  has  been  the  most  rigid  guardian  of 
the  Brahmanic  faith  and  the  doughty  opponent  of 
any  new  and  independent  movements. 

India  has  offered  to  her  rishis  and  reformers  un- 
bounded latitude  of  thought.  And,  as  a  consequence, 
her  faith  possesses  within  itself  every  shade  of  re- 
ligious speculation  and  philosophic  conclusions. 
The  many  antipodal  and  conflicting  doctrines, 
theories,  tendencies,  and  institutions  which  obtain 
under  the  all-embracing  name  of  Hinduism,  seem 
astonishing  to  every  western  investigator  of  this 
faith. 

Even  in  matters  of  ritual,  Brahmanism  has  always 
had  its  protestants,  sectarians,  and  "  come-outers." 
During  this  stern  dominance  of  the  Caste  System, 
which  is  the  most  rigorous,  if  not  the  most  cruel, 

374 


MODERN  RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  375 

inquisition  that  the  world  has  known,  there  have 
always  been  men  free  to  think  and  determined 
enough  to  push  forward  their  ideas  and  their  new 
religious  methods.  And  these  have  added  pic- 
turesque variety  to  the  history  of  faith  in  India. 

It  is,  however,  a  remarkable  tribute  to  the  power 
of  caste  and  to  the  unheroic  character  of  Hindu  re- 
formers, that,  of  the  myriad  reforms  and  protests 
against  Brahmanism  which  have  bristled  throughout 
the  centuries,  only  one  —  Buddhism  —  has  stood 
apart  in  persistent  isolation,  and  has  maintained  a 
separate  identity  and  usefulness  through  more  than 
two  millenniums.  Of  all  these  protesting  creeds,  it 
alone  has  had  sufficient  masculine  power  and  moral 
earnestness  permanently  to  impress  itself  upon  the 
world  as  a  great  religion.  It  has  achieved  this,  how- 
ever, not  in  the  land  of  its  birth,  but  in  other  lands 
and  among  other  peoples.  Like  all  other  attempts 
to  reform,  or  overthrow,  the  mother  faith  (and  even 
after  it  had  largely  accomplished  this  for  ten  centu- 
ries), Buddhism  finally  yielded  to  the  mighty  absorp- 
tive power  of  Brahmanism,  was  overthrown  as  the 
dominant  religion  of  India,  and  lost  all  power  and 
acceptance  among  the  people.  This  was  because 
most  of  its  vital  teachings  were  appropriated  by  the 


376  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND   THOUGHT 

rival  faith,  and  Buddha  himself  was  adopted  into  the 
Hindu  pantheon  as  the  ninth  incarnation  of  Vishnu. 
Henceforward,  it  had  no  distinctive  mission  or  mes- 
sage to  the  people  of  this  land,  and  died  a  natural 
death. 

The  well-known  passion  of  Hinduism  for  absorb- 
ing the  faiths  that  come  into  contact  with  it,  and  the 
maudlin  tendency  of  the  people  of  India  to  yield  to 
pressure  and  to  sacrifice  all  in  behalf  of  peace,  has 
been  the  grave  of  many  a  noble  endeavour  and  many  an 
impassioned  attempt  for  new  religious  life  and  power. 

Nevertheless,  there  is  no  reform  movement  which 
has  entered  the  arena  of  religious  conflict  in  India, 
whether  it  still  remains  entirely  within  the  Hindu 
faith  or  has  possessed  vigour  and  repulsive  energy 
enough  to  step  outside  the  ancestral  faith,  which 
has  not  left  more  or  less  of  an  impress  upon  Hindu- 
ism, and  which  does  not  to-day  exercise  some  power 
or  other  over  certain  classes  of  the  people. 

I 

All  of  the  many  modern  sects  of  Hinduism  were 
originally  protests  against  the  dominant  Brahmanism 
of  the  day.  The  most  popular  Vaishnava  sect,  in 
South  India,  —  the  Visishdadvaitha  sect  of  Ramanuja, 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  377 

—  was  first  a  vigorous  protest  against  the  austere 
pantheism  of  Sankaran.  It  was  the  demand  of  a 
thoughtful  and  an  earnest  religious  man  for  a  per- 
sonal God  which  could  bring  peace  and  rest  to  the 
soul,  in  contradistinction  to  the  unknowable,  unethi- 
cal, and  unapproachable  Brahm,  which  the  dominant 
Vedantism  had  thrust  upon  the  people. 

The  Madhwachariars  went  one  step  farther  and 
inculcated  a  dualism,  which  many  to-day  accept  as 
the  basis  of  their  faith. 

In  the  region  of  Bengal,  that  other  sect  of  Vaish- 
navism,  which  was  inculcated  by  Chaitanya  four 
centuries  ago,  is  to-day  the  popular  cult.  It  is  a 
revivalism  full  of  wild  enthusiasm  and  ecstatic  devo- 
tion; yet  it  attracts,  in  a  remarkable  way,  many  of 
the  men  of  culture  and  learning  throughout  that 
Presidency. 

The  Saivite  sectarians,  who  call  themselves  Sanga- 
mars,  were,  a  few  centuries  ago,  a  mere  uprising 
against  the  supremacy  of  the  Brahmans  and  the 
dominance  of  caste. 

Indeed,  nearly  all  religious  reformers  in  India  pro- 
pelled their  reforms  as  anti-caste  movements.  But, 
later  on,  they  have,  with  very  few  exceptions,  been 
drawn  again  into  the  maelstrom  of  caste. 


378  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

The  Sikh  religion,  itself,  was  originally  a  religious 
reform,  which  found  its  germs  in  the  mind  of  the 
great  Kabir,  and  afterward  attained  birth  in  the 
brave  reformer,  Nanak  Shah,  during  the  fifteenth 
century.  It  is  a  shrewd,  an  amiable,  and  also  a  brave 
attempt  to  harmonize  Mohammedanism  and  Hindu- 
ism. At  the  present  time,  this  also  is  gradually  yield- 
ing to  caste  dominance  and  to  the  fascination  of 
Hindu  ritual. 

Thus  every  century  has  produced  its  reformers, 
and  the  banks  of  this  great  river  of  Brahmanism  is 
strewn  with  the  wrecks  of  protesting  sects,  while 
many  other  such  barques  are  to-day  adopted  as  the 
faithful  messengers  of  orthodox  Hinduism  and  are 
carrying  its  message  to  the  people. 

II 

Modern  movements  of  religious  reform  in  India 
have  not  been  wanting  in  number  or  vigour.  And 
they  have  been  largely  movements  away  from  Poly- 
theism, on  the  one  hand,  and  from  Pantheism  on  the 
other,  toward  a  modern  Theism.  Many  intelligent 
men,  and  many  uneducated,  but  earnest  souls,  have 
grown  weary  of  their  multitudinous  pantheon,  and  of 
its  hydra-headed  idolatry,  which  charms  and  debases 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  37< 

the  masses.  In  like  manner,  many  of  them  have 
ceased  to  be  satisfied  with  the  unknown  Brahm  of 
Vedantism,  and  are  seeking  after  a  personal  Deity, 
who  can  meet  the  demands  of  their  craving  hearts. 

There  is  much  of  this  thought  and  sentiment  still 
inarticulate  among  the  upper  classes ;  but  it  is  mani- 
festly growing  with  the  increase  of  the  years. 

This  theistic  movement,  as  a  growing  search  after 
a  personal  God,  is  to  be  traced  definitely  to  the 
growth  of  western  thought,  and  especially  to  the 
direct  influence  of  Christianity.  This  is  no  less  true 
of  those  theistic  movements  which  are  by  no  means 
amiably  disposed  toward  our  religion. 

The  modern  theistic  movement  first  found  definite 
expression  and  impetus  in  the  life  and  teaching  of 
that  noble  son  of  India,  Ram  Mohan  Roy,  who  hailed 
from  the  Brahmanic  aristocracy  of  Bengal.  He  was 
born  in  1774  —  just  before  the  birth  of  American  In- 
dependence. He  studied  well  the  ancient  writings  of 
Hinduism  and  translated  some  of  the  most  important 
into  English.  He  also  searched  eagerly  and  enthusi- 
astically the  Christian  Scriptures ;  for  which  purpose 
he  made  himself  familiar  with  the  Greek  and  Hebrew 
languages.  So  mightily  did  the  New  Testament  and 
its  precepts  grip  him  that  he  wrote  and  published,  in 


380  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

1819,  an  excellent  tract,  "The  Precepts  of  Jesus  the 
Guide  to  Peace  and  Happiness."  This  is  a  remark- 
able testimony  to  the  ethical  preeminence  of  the 
Bible.  He  later  declared  that  he  "believed  in  the 
truths  of  the  Christian  religion." 

Being  unwilling  to  abide  alone  in  this  discovery 
and  in  these  convictions,  he  established,  in  1815,  the 
"  Atma  Sabha,"  or  "  Soul  Society,"  in  his  own  home. 
This  soon  developed  into  a  small  church,  for  which  a 
suitable  edifice  was  erected,  that  they  might  worship 
the  one  God  free  from  the  contaminating  influence  of 
popular  idolatry  and  Hindu  ceremonial. 

This  truly  great  man,  without  the  aid  of  any  Euro- 
pean missionary,  in  the  quiet  solitude  of  his  own 
heart,  and  under  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  of  God, 
rose  to  some  of  the  highest  truths  of  Theism,  and, 
under  the  mighty  influence  of  Christian  literature, 
became  a  reformer  of  the  first  order  among  his 
people. 

But,  during  a  visit  to  England  he  sickened,  and 
died  in  1833;  and  the  theistic  movement  weakened 
and  waned  for  a  few  years,  deprived  of  his  leadership 
and  inspiring  presence. 

It  was  in  1843  that  the  Brahmo  Somaj  of  Ram 
Mohan  Roy  was  united  with  another  Sabha  organized 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  381 

by  another  great  soul,  Debendra  Nath  Tagore.  Un- 
der the  guidance  of  this  sturdy  reformer,  the  Brahmo 
Somaj  movement  put  on  new  life  and  energy.  De- 
bendra Nath  was  very  devout  and  courageous.  He 
was  opposed  to  the  religion  of  his  fathers,  as  prac- 
tised by  the  people.  Nevertheless,  he  was  somewhat 
anchored  to  the  past.  He  still  clung  to  the  Hindu 
scriptures  and  regarded  the  Vedas  as  infallible. 
Later,  however,  as  these  Hindu  writings  were  studied 
with  more  care,  his  faith  in  them  was  considerably 
shattered,  and  he  began  to  deny  their  supreme 
authority. 

He  and  the  other  members  of  the  society  here  en- 
tered upon  a  great  struggle  which  ushered  them  into 
an  "Age  of  Reason."  The  Vedas  were  abandoned 
as  an  ultimate  authority,  and  the  Brahmo  Somaj, 
for  a  time,  became  "  a  Church  without  a  Bible,"  and 
without  any  anchorage  but  the  higher  reason  of  its 
members. 

In  1852,  the  society  was  reorganized.  Reason  was 
soon  found  to  be  inadequate  as  the  foundation  of 
faith ;  and  they  passed  on  to  an  intuitional  basis.  That 
again  seemed  to  be  even  more  unsatisfactory  than 
reason  itself.  After  a  few  years,  the  movement  grad- 
ually developed  a  doctrine  of  inspiration,  when  the 


382  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

utterances  of  the  leaders  themselves  were  regarded  as 
inspired  and  became  the  voice  of  God  to  the  mem- 
bers. Thus,  within  a  few  years,  Brahmo  Somaj 
moved  almost  in  a  circle,  in  its  search  for  a  stable 
anchorage  to  its  faith ;  and  it  returned  to  a  point  dan- 
gerously near  to  the  Hindu  position  which  it  had  left 
a  few  years  before. 

The  rapid  movement  above  indicated  was  chiefly 
owing  to  an  ardent  youth,  who  rallied  to  the  support 
of  Debendra  Nath,  and  who  gradually  took  the  reins 
into  his  own  hands.  This  young  man  was  Keshub 
Chunder  Sen ;  and  he  soon  became  the  leading  figure, 
certainly  the  most  striking,  in  the  whole  theistic 
movement  of  India.  He  acquired  growing  influence 
over  Debendra  Nath,  became  the  controlling  spirit, 
and  continued  until  his  death  to  be  the  central  figure 
of  Theism  in  India. 

Chunder  Sen  was  a  great  enthusiast,  full  of  intel- 
lectual resource,  and,  withal,  a  man  of  deep  spiritu- 
ality. He  was  an  Oriental  of  the  Orientals ;  his  mind 
was  of  a  thoroughly  mystic  type,  and,  like  the  devout 
Hindu,  he  loved  the  rigours  of  asceticism,  and,  in  not 
a  few  instances,  yielded  to  the  fascinations  of  the 
methods  of  the  Yogi. 

He  was  a  restless  soul.     Hinduism  had  so  much 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  383 

that  was  repulsive  to  him ;  and  he  felt  that  polythe- 
ism and  idolatry  had  so  crushed  out  of  his  people  all 
the  beauty  of  a  living  faith  that  he  longed  to  hasten 
communication  of  his  message  of  truth  and  of  life 
the  new  and  glorious  day  of  Theism  for  India.  His 
pace  was  so  much  faster  than  that  of  Debendra  Nath 
that  it  took  but  a  few  years  to  make  their  separation 
a  necessity.  This  took  place  in  1865.  Thereupon, 
the  old  society  became  known  as  the  "  Athi  Somaj? 
—  "The  Original  Somaj,"  —  while  Sen  and  his  party 
formed  a  new  organization,  which  was  pretentiously 
known  as  "  The  Brahmo  Somaj  of  India."  This  hap- 
pened in  1866. 

The  old  society  settled  down  into  inactivity,  lost 
much  of  its  spirit  of  reform,  and  has  never  since 
accomplished  much  in  the  realm  of  theistic  advance. 

The  new  Somaj,  however,  soon  acquired  promi- 
nence and  became  the  life  and  embodiment  of  the 
Indian  theistic  movement. 

But  Chunder  Sen  had  his  serious  dangers;  and 
those  lay  in  the  very  excess  of  his  virtues. 

Hurried  on  by  his  intense  nature,  exalted  to  power 
by  his  brilliant  intellectual  qualities,  and  yearning 
with  a  passion  for  the  release  of  his  beloved  India 
from  the  religious  and  spiritual  thraldom  which  he 


384  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

witnessed  all  about  him,  he  acquired  irresistible 
charm  and  power  with  his  followers,  and  his  words  be- 
came their  undisputed  law  ;  and  his  deliverances  were 
surcharged  with  what  they  regarded  as  divine  inspira- 
tion. And  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  soon  came  to 
believe  himself  to  be  a  direct  vehicle  of  God  in  the 
communication  of  his  message  of  truth  and  of  life 
to  the  world. 

Under  the  influence  of  this  conviction  or  delusion 
(whichever  one  may  choose  to  call  it),  he  was  swept 
on,  and  carried  with  him  most  of  his  followers,  into 
startling  novelties  of  ritual  and  of  organization. 

Finally,  however,  he  became  so  extreme  and  radical 
that  some  of  his  principal  followers  became  frightened 
and  grew  restless.  The  occasion  of  another  split  was 
found  in  the  marriage  of  Chunder  Sen's  daughter  to 
the  young  Maharaja  of  Cooch  Behar,  in  1876.  Chun- 
der Sen  had  worked  heroically  for  the  enactment  of  a 
new  marriage  law  for  the  members  of  the  Brahmo 
Somaj,  whereby  no  bride  should  be  married  before 
fourteen  and  no  bridegroom  under  eighteen  years  of 
age.  Yet,  in  the  marriage  of  his  own  daughter,  he 
ignored  this  law,  which  was  passed  chiefly  through  his 
own  energy.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  leader 
claimed  divine  guidance  in  this  affair,  his  leading  fol- 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS   MOVEMENT  385 

lowers  attributed  the  marriage  to  his  weakness  and 
pride. 

This  led  to  another  secession,  in  May,  1878,  whereby 
the  majority  of  the  societies  and  their  members  broke 
away  from  the  Sen  party  and  established  the  Sadharna 
Somaj — "The  Universal  Somaj."  This  schism  was 
a  terrible  blow  to  Mr.  Sen ;  and  yet  it  released  him 
from  the  trammels  which  the  dissatisfied  had  hitherto 
thrust  upon  him,  and  gave  him,  among  the  remnant, 
an  opportunity  to  launch  out  on  new  projects,  and  to 
introduce  many  religious  vagaries,  which  to  most  men 
were  striking  and,  to  many,  were  shocking.  Under 
the  banner  of  the  "  New  Dispensation,"  he  practised  a 
varied  liturgy  and  cultivated  an  unique  ceremonial 
which  seemed  to  be  a  close  imitation,  and  almost  a 
mockery,  of  some  of  the  most  sacred  institutions  of 
Christianity  and  of  other  religions. 

The  schismatic  weakness  of  the  theistic  movement 
did  not  reach  its  consummation  in  this  last  division. 
It  was  almost  immediately  upon  the  death  of  Keshub 
Chunder  Sen,  at  the  beginning  of  1884,  that  his  imme- 
diate family  and  a  few  of  his  followers  proclaimed  that 
his  spirit  still  abode  in  the  Mandir,  where  he  so  often 
spoke,  and  that  no  one  should  succeed  him  or  speak 
from  the  Mandir  hereafter ! 


2C 


386  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Within  these  few  short  years  a  new  cult  had  begun 
to  grow  around  the  person  of  Chunder  Sen,  like  those 
around  a  thousand  others  well  known  in  the  history  ot 
India.  He  became  to  some  of  his  followers  not  only 
a  great  religious  teacher,  but  also  something  of  an 
incarnation  on  his  own  account,  so  that  it  seemed  to 
them  blasphemy  for  any  living  being  to  aspire  to  speak 
from  the  pulpit  of  the  beloved  dead  master. 

His  natural  successor  was  Babu  Protap  Chunder 
Mozumdar.  He  protested  against  this  apotheosis  of 
the  departed  leader,  and  insisted  upon  the  fact  that 
their  movement  must  be  open  to  new  light,  and  must 
seek  after  ever  increasing  progress  and  advance.  But 
the  family  were  obdurate,  and  the  new  split  became 
inevitable ;  and  thus  Chunder  Sen  has  passed  into  the 
ranks  of  the  Mahatmas  of  India  and  will  erelong  be 
promoted  to  a  place  among  the  incarnations  of  their 
deities. 

Mr.  Mozumdar  was,  intellectually,  not  inferior  to 
Chunder  Sen  himself;  and  he  was  possessed  of  deep 
earnestness  of  spirit  and  of  a  beautiful  English  style 
(both  as  a  writer  and  speaker)  which  commended  him 
and  his  cause  to  the  public,  and  especially  to  English 
and  American  Theists.  He  visited  the  West  more 
than  once,  and  charmed  many  an  audience  of  Christian 
men  by  his  deep  sincerity  and  eloquence. 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  387 

III 

The  progress  of  this  Brahmo  movement  has  not 
been  very  encouraging. 

We  have  already  seen  its  tendency  to  schism. 
There  seems  very  little  in  the  movement  which  makes 
for  peace  and  unity.  Any  little  pique  or  difference  of 
views  has  not  only  created  internal  dissension,  but 
also  engendered  new  sects. 

The  leaders  of  the  movement  have  been  both  able 
and  absolutely  devoted  to  the  theistic  cause ;  but  they 
have  not  revealed  the  highest  qualities  of  leadership, 
especially  that  quality  which  exalts  above  the  leader 
himself  the  principles  and  the  cause  which  he  advo- 
cates. Nor  have  they  imparted  to  the  members  of  the 
Somaj  that  altruistic  fervour  which  enables  them  to 
deny  themselves  in  behalf  of  their  common  cause  and 
purpose. 

Numerically,  the  progress  of  the  Brahmo  Somaj  has 
been  most  disappointing.  At  the  last  census  there 
were  only  4050  members.  And,  of  these,  more  than 
three-quarters  were  in  Bengal. 

This,  however,  by  no  means  represents  the 
strength  of  the  movement ;  for  it  is  said,  with  truth, 
that  many  who  do  not  register  themselves  as 


388  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Brahmos  are  in  deepest  accord  with  the  movement. 
And  it  must,  moreover,  be  remembered  that  the 
influence  of  the  society  is  far  in  excess  of  the 
numbers  represented.  For  the  movement  has 
drawn  its  membership,  almost  exclusively,  from  the 
upper  class;  and  the  majority  of  Brahmos  are  men 
of  education  and  of  position  in  society.  Moreover, 
they  joined  this  movement  under  the  deep  convic- 
tion of  the  utter  worthlessness  of  Hinduism  as  a 
way  of  salvation,  and  with  a  purpose  to  seek  after 
that  which  is  best  in  thought  and  life. 

It  is  this  aristocratic  character  of  the  movement 
which  has  largely  militated  against  its  popularity. 
Its  appeal  has  been  mainly  to  men  and  women  of 
English  training.  It  has  not  been  possessed  of  any 
passion  for  the  multitude;  nor  has  it  adequately 
appreciated  the  importance,  for  its  own  well-being, 
of  a  united  endeavour  to  reach  and  bring  in  the 
man  of  the  street. 

Nevertheless,  the  movement  has  been  thoroughly 
permeated  with  an  Indian  spirit.  The  leaders  have 
been  particular  in  their  desire  to  exalt  and  empha- 
size the  Oriental  aspect  and  method,  as  distinct 
from  the  Occidental.  This  is-  the  reason  why  it 
has  been  so  frequently  and  bitterly  criticised.  It 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  389 

has  been  judged  by  western  standards  and  criti- 
cised because  it  has  not  squared  with  western 
ideals.  From  time  to  time  missionaries  and  other 
Christian  men,  seeing  no  reason,  from  their  stand- 
point, why  these  Brahmo  friends  should  not  come 
over  in  a  body  into  the  Christian  fold,  have  been 
impatient  with  their  lack  of  response.  They  failed 
to  understand  that,  with  these  western  principles 
and  admiration,  there  were  also  eastern  thoughts 
and  prepossessions,  and  the  invaluable  inheritance 
of  a  past  that  kept  them  aloof  from  the  foreign 
faith  and  led  them  frequently  to  deliver  themselves 
vehemently  against  its  most  western  manifestations. 
Even  their  conception  of  Christ  was  a  distinctly 
Oriental  one.  And  they  denied  that  a  man  of  the 
West  could  compare  with  them  of  the  East  in  the 
deep  appreciation  of  the  Christ-character  and  in 
loving  attachment  to  their  "  Brother "  from  the  East 
—  Jesus  of  Nazareth. 

Yet,  the  Christian  basis  of  this  movement  is 
unmistakable.  We  have  seen  how  Ram  Mohan 
Roy  received  a  new  baptism  of  thought  and  life 
upon  studying  the  Christian  Scriptures.  It  gave 
a  new  direction  and  inspiration  to  his  theistic  con- 
ceptions. 


39o  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Chunder  Sen  found  nearly  all  the  inspiration 
from  the  Bible;  and  he  lived  under  the  spell  of 
Christ's  own  power,  and  with  a  passion,  such  as  few 
Christians  possess,  to  follow  Him  and  to  be  a  full 
partaker  of  His  blessings. 

The  writer  will  never  forget  his  own  brief  visit 
to  Protap  Mozumdar,  not  long  before  the  latter's 
death.  It  was  on  the  eve  of  Good  Friday.  He 
found  this  devout  man  with  eighteen  of  his  disciples 
(one  of  them  an  Oxford  graduate)  studying  together 
the  tender  words  of  our  Lord  uttered  to  His  dis- 
ciples in  the  Upper  Room  on  the  night  in  which 
He  was  betrayed.  They  were  thus  qualifying  them- 
selves properly  to  commemorate  His  death  on  the 
coming  morn.  And  Mr.  Mozumdar  gave  a  strong 
lecture  on  "  The  Suffering  Christ "  to  a  large  audi- 
ence in  one  of  the  city  halls  on  the  morrow.  The 
thought  occurred  to  us,  how  many  Christians  had 
met  together  that  same  evening,  like  these  Brahmos, 
for  the  purpose  of  studying  our  Lord's  Words  upon 
that  memorable  occasion  and  bringing  themselves 
thus  en  rapport  with  Him  whose  atoning  death 
they  were  to  commemorate?  As  we  parted,  it  was 
hardly  necessary  for  that  man  of  God  to  say  to  the 
writer  in  pathetic  tones,  "  O,  sir,  I  only  wish  you 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  391 

knew  how  near  we  are  to  you  in  these  matters!" 
Some  may  have  read  that  remarkable  book,  named 
"The  Oriental  Christ,"  written  and  published  by 
this  same  gentleman  in  1883.  In  the  preface,  he 
gives  this  strikingly  beautiful  account  of  his  con- 
version :  — 

"  Nearly  twenty  years  ago,  my  troubles,  studies, 
and  circumstances  forced  upon  me  the  question  of 
personal  relationship  to  Christ.  ...  As  the  sense 
of  sin  grew  on  me,  and  with  it  a  deep  miserable 
restlessness,  a  necessity  of  reconciliation  between 
aspiration  and  practice,  I  was  mysteriously  led  to 
feel  a  personal  affinity  to  the  Spirit  of  Christ.  The 
whole  subject  of  the  life  and  death  of  Christ  had 
for  me  a  marvellous  sweetness  and  fascination.  .  .  . 
Often  discouraged  and  ridiculed,  I  persisted  in  ac- 
cording to  Christ  a  tenderness  of  honour  which 
arose  in  my  heart  unbidden.  I  prayed,  I  fasted,  at 
Christmas  and  Easter  times.  I  secretly  hunted  the 
book-shops  of  Calcutta  to  gather  the  so-called  like- 
nesses of  Christ.  I  did  not  know,  I  cared  not  to 
think,  whither  all  this  would  lead.  .  .  .  About  the 
year  1867  ...  I  was  almost  alone  in  Calcutta.  My 
inward  trials  and  travails  had  really  reached  a 
crisis.  It  was  a  week-day  evening,  I  forget  the 


392  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

date  now.  The  gloomy  and  haunted  shades  of 
summer  evening  had  suddenly  thickened  into  dark- 
ness. ...  I  sat  near  the  large  lake  in  the  Hindu 
College  compound.  ...  A  sobbing,  gusty  wind 
swam  over  the  water's  surface.  ...  I  was  meditat- 
ing upon  the  state  of  my  soul,  on  the  cure  of  all 
spiritual  wretchedness,  the  brightness  and  peace 
unknown  to  me,  which  was  the  lot  of  God's  chil- 
dren. I  prayed  and  besought  Heaven.  I  cried  and 
shed  hot  tears.  .  .  .  Suddenly  it  seemed  to  me,  let 
me  own  it  was  revealed  to  me,  that  close  to  me 
there  was  a  holier,  more  blessed,  most  loving  per- 
sonality upon  which  I  must  repose  my  troubled 
head.  Jesus  lay  discovered  in  my  heart  as  a 
strange,  human,  kindred  love,  as  a  repose,  a  sym- 
pathetic consolation,  an  unpurchased  treasure,  for 
which  I  was  freely  invited.  The  response  of  my 
nature  was  unhesitating  and  immediate.  Jesus, 
from  that  day,  to  me  became  a  reality  whereon  I 
might  lean.  It  was  an  impulse  then,  a  flood  of 
light,  love,  and  consolation.  It  is  no  longer  an  im- 
pulse now.  It  is  a  faith  and  principle;  it  is  an 
experience  verified  by  a  thousand  trials  ...  a  char- 
acter, a  spirit,  a  holy,  sacrificed,  exalted  self,  whom 
I  recognize  as  the  true  Son  of  God.  According 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  393 

to  my  humble  light,  I  have  always  tried  to  be  faith- 
ful to  this  inspiration.  I  have  been  aided,  con- 
firmed, encouraged  by  many,  and  most  of  all  by 
one.  My  aspiration  has  been  not  to  speculate  on 
Christ,  but  to  be  what  Jesus  tells  us  all  to  be.  ... 
I  shall  be  content  if  what  I  say  in  these  pages  at 
all  tends  to  give  completeness  to  any  man's  ideas 
of  the  life  and  ministry  of  Jesus  Christ.  ...  In 
the  midst  of  these  crumbling  systems  of  Hindu 
error  and  superstition,  in  the  midst  of  these  cold, 
spectral  shadows  of  transition,  secularism,  and  ag- 
nostic doubt,  to  me  Christ  has  been  like  the  meat 
and  drink  of  my  soul.  His  influences  have  woven 
round  me  for  the  last  twenty  years  or  more,  and, 
outside  the  fold  of  Christianity  as  I  am,  have  formed 
a  new  fold,  wherein  I  find  many  besides  myself." 

Chunder  Sen  also  abundantly  expressed  himself 
concerning  the  Christ,  His  mission,  and  message.  But 
to  him,  again,  it  is  an  Asiatic  Christ;  and  He  must 
be  accepted  in  a  truly  Oriental,  yes,  even  in  a  Hindu, 
way.  He  says :  — 

"  It  is  not  the  Christ  of  the  Baptists,  nor  the  Christ 
of  the  Methodists,  but  the  Christ  sent  by  God,  the 
Christ  of  love  and  meekness,  of  truth  and  self-sacri- 
fice, whom  the  world  delights  to  honour.  If  you 


394  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

say  we  must  renounce  our  nationality  and  all  the 
purity  and  devotion  of  eastern  faith  for  sectarian 
and  western  Christianity,  we  shall  say  most  emphat- 
ically, No.  It  is  our  Christ,  Asias  Christ,  you  have 
come  to  return  to  us.  The  East  gratefully  and 
lovingly  welcomes  back  her  Christ.  But  we  shall 
not  have  your  Christianity,  which  suits  not  the  spirit 
of  the  East.  Our  religion  is  the  religion  of  harmony." 

In  further  enforcement  of  this  Oriental  character 
he  continues:  — 

"  Was  not  Jesus  Christ  an  Asiatic  ?  Yes,  and  His 
disciples  were  Asiatics,  and  all  the  agencies  primarily 
employed  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel  were 
Asiatic.  In  fact,  Christianity  was  founded  and 
developed  by  Asiatics  and  in  Asia.  When  I  reflect 
on  this,  my  love  for  Jesus  becomes  a  hundred  fold 
intensified;  I  feel  Him  nearer  my  heart,  and  deeper 
in  my  national  sympathies.  .  .  .  And  is  it  not  true 
that  an  Asiatic  can  read  the  imageries  and  allegories 
of  the  Gospel,  and  its  descriptions  of  the  natural 
sceneries,  of  customs  and  manners,  with  greater  inter- 
est and  a  fuller  perception  of  their  force  and  beauty 
than  an  European  ?  .  .  .  The  more  this  greater  fact 
is  pondered,  the  less,  I  hope,  will  be  the  antipathy 
and  hatred  of  European  Christians  against  Oriental 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  395 

nationalities,  and  the  greater  the  interest  of  the 
Asiatics  in  the  teachings  of  Christ.  And  thus  in 
Christ,  Europe  and  Asia,  the  East  and  the  West, 
may  learn  to  find  harmony  and  unity.  .  .  ." 

And  let  it  not  be  supposed  that  Mr.  Sen  was 
altogether  wanting  in  an  appreciation  of  the  higher 
significance  and  vicarious  efHcacy  of  the  death  of 
Christ.  Concerning  this,  he  observes:  — 

"  Humanity  was  lost  in  Adam,  but  was  recovered 
in  Christ.  He  was  the  world's  atonement.  .  .  . 

"  His  death  on  the  cross  affords  the  highest  practi- 
cal illustration  of  self-sacrifice.  He  sacrificed  His  life 
for  the  sake  of  truth  and  the  benefit  of  the  world.  In 
obedience  to  the  will  of  His  Father,  He  laid  down 
His  life,  and  said,  Thy  will  be  done  !  And  surely 
there  is  deeper  meaning  in  the  fact  than  even  the 
orthodox  attach  to  it,  that  the  death  of  Christ  is  the 
life  of  the  world.  . 

In  many  of  the  lectures  which  he  gave,  and  in 
many  of  the  articles  which  he  wrote,  we  have  evi- 
dence of  the  wonderful  place  which  Christ  had  in 
his  heart  and  of  the  power  which  He  exercised  over 
his  thoughts.  He  exclaims :  — 

"  Blessed  Jesus,  immortal  Child  of  God !  For  the 
world  He  lived  and  died.  May  the  world  appreciate 


396  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Him  and  follow  His  precepts !  .  .  .  All  through  my 
inner  being  I  see  Christ.  He  is  no  longer  to  me  a 
doctrine,  or  a  dogma,  but,  with  Paul,  I  cry,  'for  me 
to  live  is  Christ ! ' '  On  another  occasion  he  says :  — 

"  Where,  then,  is  Christ  now  ?  He  is  living  in  all 
Christian  lives,  and  in  all  Christian  influences  at 
work  around  us.  ...  You  cannot  resist  His  influ- 
ence; you  may  deny  His  doctrines,  you  may  even 
hate  and  repudiate  His  name,  but  He  goes  straight 
into  your  hearts,  and  leavens  your  lives." 

Other  leaders  of  this  movement  are  imbued  with 
the  same  spirit.  The  editor  of  the  New  Dispensation 
remarks: — 

"  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  Brahmists  have  accepted 
Christian  truth  in  a  more  special  sense  than  Hindus, 
or  even  some  Christian  sects,  have  any  idea  of.  ... 
The  organization  of  the  Brahmo  Somaj  of  India  is 
framed  upon  an  essentially  Christian  basis.  Its  mis- 
sionary staff  is  Christian,  being  guided  entirely  by 
the  principle  of  '  Take  no  thought  for  the  morrow.' 
In  its  mission  office,  mottoes  are  found  upon  the 
walls  which  are  all  Christian.  Almost  every  Brahmo 
household  has  a  picture  of  Christ.  The  only  Life 
of  Jesus  in  Bengali  is  by  a  missionary  of  the  Brahmo 
Somaj  of  India.  Its  truly  evangelistical  work,  the 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  397 

life  and  conversation  of  its  members,  breathe  dis- 
tinctly the  spirit  and  influence  of  Christ.  .  .  ." 

Another  Theist  writes :  — 

"  Reverently  have  I  sat  at  the  feet  of  the  Jesus  of 
the  Gospels  to  learn  the  exalted  ethics  of  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount.  But  Jesus,  other  than  a  moral  force, 
the  truer  and  higher  Jesus,  long  remained  a  sealed 
book  to  me.  Who  could  know  the  veritable  Christ 
of  God  without  light  from  above  ?  .  .  . 

"  Jesus  forms  the  heart-blood  of  many  a  Brahmo. 
.  .  .  We  are  ready  to  sacrifice  anything  if  only  by 
that  we  are  enabled  to  love  and  cherish  Jesus  in  our 
hearts.  .  .  .  The  Brahmo  Somaj  is  born  to  honour 
and  revere  Jesus,  whatever  the  result  may  be." 

From  these  quotations,  which  might  be  multiplied 
indefinitely,  it  may  be  seen  that  the  movement  has 
been,  to  a  considerable  extent,  under  the  Christ  spell 
and  imbued  with  much  of  His  Spirit.  Inasmuch, 
however,  as  the  movement  is  an  avowedly  eclectic 
one,  the  Brahmoist  was  never  willing  to  rest  com- 
pletely under  the  Christ  influence.  He  gave  to 
Christ,  perhaps,  a  supreme  place,  but  not  a  unique 
position,  in  his  life  and  thought.  Jesus  was  to  him 
one  of  many,  though  perhaps  a  primus  inter  pares. 

It  is  this  eclectic  character  of  the  Brahmo  Somaj 


398  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

which  has  robbed  it  of  much  of  its  power.  It  may 
seem,  at  first,  a  very  fine  thing  to  collect,  classify, 
and  codify  the  best  from  many  religions  and  dignify 
them  as  a  religion.  But  that  can  never  become  a 
unified  message  of  life  to  any  people.  It  may  be 
ethically  immaculate,  but  it  has  no  vital  power.  The 
distinctive,  life-giving,  and  inspiring  element  of  every 
faith  has  been  eliminated,  and  only  the  common, 
unimpassioned,  and  uninspiring  elements  have  been 
retained. 

Moreover,  Brahmos  have  failed  to  realize  that 
Theism,  as  such,  has  never  satisfied  any  people  as  a 
way  of  salvation.  It  is  doubtless  a  correct  appre- 
hension of  the  Divine  Being.  But  religion  requires 
a  great  deal  more  than  this  in  the  way  of  exhibiting 
the  characteristics  of  the  Deity,  and  especially  of 
revealing  His  attitude  toward,  and  His  work  for,  man- 
kind, before  it  can  possess  and  reveal  the  potency  of 
a  saving  faith. 

It  would  seem  as  if  this  movement,  up  to  the 
present  time,  has  just  missed  its  mark  and  failed  of 
achieving  greatness  and  power.  As  we  have  seen, 
the  leaders  have  exalted  our  Lord  in  a  wonderful 
way,  and  have  exhibited  even  a  passion  for  Him  in 
some  ways.  And  yet  they  have  robbed  Him  of  the 


MODERN  RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  399 

distinct  uniqueness  of  His  nature  and  of  His  work 
for  man.  They  are  first  eclectics,  and  then  they 
are  rigid  Unitarians,  and  lastly  they  are  Christians. 
They  need  to  reverse  this  order  so  as  to  add  effi- 
ciency and  potency  to  the  Brahmo  Somaj. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  Chunder  Sen,  with  all 
his  declared  love  for  Christ  and  his  great  admira- 
tion for  Him  and  His  work,  mentioned  neither  the 
name  nor  the  saving  work  of  Jesus  in  the  final 
creed  of  the  New  Dispensation.  That  creed  is  as 
follows :  — 

"  One  God,  one  Scripture,  one  Church. 
Eternal  Progress  of  the  Soul. 
Communion  of  Prophets  and  Saints. 
Fatherhood  and  Motherhood  of  God ; 
Brotherhood  of  Man  and  Sisterhood  of  Woman. 
Harmony  of  Knowledge  and  Holiness,  Love  and  Work ; 
Yoga  and  Asceticism  in  their  highest  development. 
Loyalty  to  Sovereign." 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  this  move- 
ment deserves  much  more  our  commendation  than 
our  criticism.  It  is  a  noble  endeavour  to  pass  out 
of  an  inherited  bondage,  a  debased  creed,  a  demoral- 
ized pantheon,  and  an  all-embracing  superstition, 
into  the  full  wisdom  and  blessing  of  a  correct  vision 


400  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

of  God  and  Duty.  If  they  have  failed  of  the  best, 
they  are,  nevertheless,  with  their  faces  turned  toward 
it.  And  there  is  every  hope  that  a  kind  Providence, 
through  the  instrumentality  of  Christian  thought 
and  western  civilization,  will  lead  them  unto  it.  If 
they  have  not  accepted  our  western  Christianity,  it 
may  be  that  God  has  something  better  in  store  for 
them,  in  training  them  toward  the  realization  of 
that  form  of  Christian  life  and  thought  which  will 
not  only  be  more  in  consonance  with  Indian  taste 
and  ideals,  but  will  also  grip  the  country  in  such  a 
way  as  the  western  type  of  our  faith  has  not  yet 
been  able  to  do,  and  seems  incapable  of  doing. 

IV 

The  Arya  Somaj  is  a  movement  somewhat  kin- 
dred to  the  Brahmo  Somaj,  in  so  far  as  it  is  a  defi- 
nite protest  against  modern  Hinduism  and  is  theistic 
in  its  teaching.  The  Theism  of  this  Somaj,  how- 
ever, is  quite  different  in  character  from  that  of  the 
Brahmos. 

Dayanand  Saraswati  was  a  Brahman,  born  in  the 
Gujarati  country  about  1825.  He  developed  into  a 
man  of  keen  intellect  and  of  deep  convictions.  He 
also  studied  the  Christian  Scriptures  and  was  slightly 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  401 

versed  in  the  Hindu  Shastras.  He  became  dissatis- 
fied with  the  Pantheism  of  his  mother  faith;  the 
caste  system  grated  upon  his  nerves,  and  the  idola- 
try and  the  superstitions  of  the  land,  and  especially 
the  gross  immorality  of  the  people,  roused  him  to 
deep  thought  and  activity.  He  appealed  to  the 
Pandits,  but  found  no  sympathy  or  help  from  them. 
He  found  his  Theism  in  the  Vedas  themselves,  and 
ever  after  proclaimed,  with  great  vehemence,  that  the 
God  of  the  Vedas  was  one  and  was  a  personal  God ; 
and  he  found  an  easy  way  of  interpreting  those 
ancient  books  in  harmony  with  his  convictions! 

Jesus  Christ  did  not  appeal  to  him  in  the  least. 
Indeed,  he  indulges  in  very  cheap  and  gross  criti- 
cism of  the  life  of  our  Lord.  His  attitude  toward 
Christianity  was  not  at  all  kindly;  indeed,  the  move- 
ment, up  to  the  present,  has  been  distinguished  for 
nothing  more  than  its  hostility  to  the  Christian  reli- 
gion. Nevertheless,  it  is  doubtless  true  that  some 
of  the  best  ideas  that  Dayanand  possessed  were 
gleaned  from  the  Bible ;  and  the  Arya  Somaj  has 
learned  and  inculcates  some  of  the  important  les- 
sons of  our  faith. 

When  Dayanand  found  no  encouragement  in  his 
appeal  to  the  Pandits,  he  turned  ultimately  to  the 


2D 


402  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

people  and  founded,  in  1875,  the  Arya  Somaj  at 
Bombay.  And  from  the  first  the  movement  has 
been  a  popular  one,  addressing  itself  to  the  masses 
and  seeking  to  bring  them  over  to  its  way  of 
thinking  and  living.  In  this  it  has  been,  as  we 
have  seen,  entirely  removed  from  the  Brahmo 
Somaj,  which  has  been  too  content  to  remain  a 
religion  of  the  classes.  Like  the  other  movement, 
however,  it  has  been  largely  local  in  its  spread  and 
influence.  Of  its  one  hundred  thousand  members 
at  the  present  time,  more  than  70  per  cent  are  in 
the  United  Provinces,  and  nearly  all  the  remainder 
are  in  the  Panjaub. 

Moreover,  it  has  recently  gathered  its  recruits 
mainly  from  the  educated  classes,  among  whom  the 
higher  castes  largely  prevail;  nearly  four-fifths  of 
the  Aryas  are  said  to  be  of  the  twice-born  castes, 
which  is  a  very  significant  fact.  So  that  both  in  its 
popular  character  and  methods,  as  well  as  in  the  high 
social  position  and  educational  training  of  its  mem- 
bers and  in  its  rapidly  growing  numbers,  the  Arya 
Somaj  is  a  movement  of  considerable  importance. 

The  principles  of  this  Somaj,  as  enunciated  in  its 
creed,  are  not  such  as  to  grip  men  with  power. 
They  emphasize  the  unity  of  God,  the  infallibility 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS   MOVEMENT  403 

of  the  Vedas;  and  the  general  aim  of  the  Somaj 
is  "to  do  good  to  the  world  by  improving  the 
physical,  social,  intellectual,  moral,  and  spiritual  con- 
dition of  mankind."  Its  moral  code  is  of  a  high 
order. 

It  is  thoroughly  national  in  its  spirit,  and  makes 
much  capital  out  of  the  present  spirit  of  racial  an- 
tagonism. It  is  a  significant  fact  that  during  the 
recent  season  of  "  Unrest "  the  government  regarded 
the  Arya  Somaj  as  a  hotbed  of  sedition  and  a 
nourisher  of  hostility  to  the  West  and  to  western 
things. 

The  Arya  Somaj  is  awake  to  the  importance  of 
training  men  as  messengers  of  its  Gospel  of  The- 
ism. It  has  established  a  Guru  Kula  at  the  foot 
of  the  Himalayas,  where  quite  a  number  of  young 
men  are  being  trained  in  its  doctrines  and  supplied 
with  its  enthusiasms.  From  this  theological  semi- 
nary many  have  already  gone  forth,  in  the  orthodox 
style  of  religious  mendicancy,  to  impart  their  teach- 
ing and  spread  their  movement  far  and  wide,  with- 
out any  expense  to  the  society. 

There  is  to-day,  in  North  India,  no  enemy  to  the 
Christian  cause  so  wide  awake  and  so  bitter  as  the 
Arya  Somaj.  It  is  so  thoroughly  national  in  its 


4o4  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

spirit,  is  so  compactly  organized,  and  lends  itself  so 
easily  to  the  racial  and  political  agitation  of  the  day, 
that  Christianity  finds  in  it  its  greatest  foe  in  those 
regions. 

Let  it  not  be  thought,  however,  that  we  do  not 
appreciate  the  living  spark  of  theistic  truth  which 
this  movement  represents,  combined,  as  it  is,  with 
hostility  to  the  caste  system,  which  is  India's  greatest 
curse,  and  its  antagonism  to  many  of  the  superstitions 
and  unworthy  ceremonials  of  the  ancestral  faith. 

That  movement  must  not  be  condemned  too 
severely  which  is  a  bulwark  against  drink,  caste,  idol- 
atry, early  marriages,  and  which  vigorously  promotes 
female  education,  the  remarriage  of  widows,  and  vari- 
ous philanthropic  institutions. 

V 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  close  this  chapter  with 
a  reference  to  the  Theosophical  Society  in  India.  It 
is  true  that  the  leaders  of  this  movement,  which  was 
established  in  America  in  1875,  and  transplanted  into 
India  a  short  time  afterward,  disavow  its  claim  to 
being  a  religion  ;  though  that  claim  was  definitely 
made  and  warmly  pushed  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago. 
It  is  now  extolled  by  its  members  as  "  the  cement  of 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  405 

faiths,"  "  the  harmonizer  of  religions."  It  is  said  that 
Arya  Somaj  became  affiliated  with  it  in  1879,  though 
we  have  seen  no  result  of  this  affiliation. 

The  objects  of   Theosophy   are  said  to  be  three: 

(1)  The   establishment   of  a   universal   brotherhood. 

(2)  The  study  of  ancient   languages.     (3)  Investiga- 
tion of  the  hidden  mysteries  of  nature  and  the  latent 
psychical  forces  of  man. 

These  aims  seem  thoroughly  worthy,  though  the 
last  mentioned,  under  its  original  founders,  led  to 
mystical  claptrap,  and  to  the  abuse  of  the  strong 
superstitious  instincts  of  India. 

The  society  was  founded  by  a  Russian  adventuress, 
Madame  Blavatsky,  and  by  an  American  soldier,  Colo- 
nel Olcott,  who  was  the  easy  tool,  if  not  the  accom- 
plice, of  his  clever  and  unscrupulous  associate. 

In  the  early  history  of  the  movement,  at  its  head- 
quarters in  Madras,  Madame  Blavatsky  gathered 
around  her  a  numerous  coterie  of  ardent  Hindus, 
whom  she  duped  with  various  tricks  and  seances. 
This  was  with  a  view  to  convincing  them  of  her  con- 
stant communication  with  Koothoomi  and  various 
other  Tibetan  Mahatmas,  of  whom  she  seemed  to  be 
the  special  agent !  These  and  other  similar  perform- 
ances might  have  continued  had  it  not  been  for  her 


4o6  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

French  accomplices,  who  quarrelled  with  her,  because 
she  did  not  pay  them  adequately,  and  who  exposed  her 
mercilessly.  The  whole  matter  was  published  in  the 
Madras  Christian  College  Magazine,  and  the  Russian 
lady  was  speedily  sent  away  from  India  to  the  West 
for  a  judicious  season  of  rest.  The  leaders  of  Theoso- 
phy  have  never  been  unwilling  to  impose  upon  the 
stupendous  credulity  of  their  Indian  followers. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  undeniable  that,  with  all  its  fail- 
ings, Theosophy  has  exercised  considerable  influence 
upon  the  educated  classes  in  this  country.  This  has 
resulted  largely  through  its  readiness  to  utilize  the 
recent  movement  of  the  people  toward  higher  political 
privileges  and  their  deep  spirit  of  religious  unrest. 

Since  the  advent  of  Mrs.  Besant,  the  society  has 
been  largely  moulded  by  her  erratic  powers.  She  has 
not  hesitated  to  use  her  ability  and  influence  toward 
the  creation  and  the  development  of  a  strong  reac- 
tionary religious  spirit  throughout  the  land.  She  has 
bitterly  denounced  every  tendency  among  the  people 
toward  Christianity.  By  her  eloquence,  which  is 
remarkable,  she  has  extolled  the  faith  of  India,  and 
has  revived  and  embalmed  many  of  its  worst  features 
which  were  rapidly  passing  away;  and  has  even  de- 
fended idolatry  and  kindred  evils  by  trying  to  harmon- 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  407 

ize  them  with  modern  and  scientific  ideas !  She  has 
herself  become  practically  a  Hindu,  expounds  Hindu 
doctrines,  and  practise  Hindu  ceremonies.  She  has 
persistently  maintained  eastern  thought  and  customs 
as  against  western,  and  has  thus  endeared  herself  to 
English-speaking  Hindus,  who  regard  her  as  the  god- 
dess Saraswati  herself,  and  are  willing  to  give  her  a 
place  in  their  pantheon  as  one  of  the  great  defenders 
of  their  faith  against  the  mighty  influences  of  the 
West! 

In  this  matter,  Mrs.  Besant  may  be  said  to  have 
caused  irreparable  injury  to  the  people,  as  she  has 
helped  to  arrest  the  tendency  toward  religious  reform 
and  progress,  and  has  rendered  articulate  and  given 
power  and  expression  to  the  reactionary  spirit  which 
is  now  so  rampant  in  India.  More  than  any  other 
person,  and  chiefly  because  she  is  of  the  West,  and 
speaks  in  the  accents  of  the  West,  she  has  antago- 
nized progress  in  this  land,  not  only  religiously  but 
also  socially,  and  has  done  the  greatest  disservice  to 
the  people  of  India.  In  her  eyes,  Hindu  philoso- 
phy and  ritual,  Hindu  institutions  and  domestic  life, 
have  practically  nothing  to  learn  from  the  West,  and 
need  only  to  be  known  in  order  to  be  appreciated 
and  loved! 


4o8  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

This,  doubtless,  in  good  part,  accounts  for  her  pres- 
ent popularity. 

Yet,  one  cannot  fail  to  recognize  the  value  of  some 
things  which  she  is  doing.  She  has  recently  begun  to 
speak  with  some  emphasis  upon  lines  of  reform.  She 
has  been  instrumental  in  stirring  within  the  people  a 
wider  desire  for  higher  education;  though  one  can 
hardly  understand  why  she  has  done  so  much  for  the 
establishment  of  a  college  for  men,  and  has  done  prac- 
tically nothing  to  advance  the  educational  interests  of 
her  much-neglected  sex  in  India. 

Upon  the  death  of  Colonel  Olcott,  the  President 
Founder  of  Theosophy,  in  1907,  Mrs.  Besant  became 
his  successor.  So  far  as  the  Indian  vote  was  con- 
cerned, this  was  a  foregone  conclusion;  since  her 
avowed  sympathy  with  Hinduism  in  all  its  forms  had 
gained  for  her  a  strong  place  in  the  Hindu  heart. 

The  method  by  which  she  was  elected,  however,  is 
suggestive  of  the  future  course  of  the  movement  in 
India. 

When  nearing  death,  Colonel  Olcott  was  induced 
by  Mrs.  Besant  to  invoke  and  to  consult  the  "Masters" 
—  the  convenient  ghosts  of  the  dead  —  with  a  view  to 
a  choice  of  his  successor  in  office.  There  was  no 
doubt  about  his  preference  for  the  Englishwoman. 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  409 

The  Mahatmas  wisely  agreed  with  the  Colonel  and 
Mrs.  Besant,  and  a  powerful  fulcrum  was  secured  for 
lifting  her  into  the  presidency.  And  Mrs.  Besant 
to-day  claims  that  it  is  better  for  her  to  have  been 
chosen  by  the  dead  than  to  have  been  elected  by  the 
living.  Upon  her  inauguration,  she  insisted  upon  it 
that  all  Theosophists  must  cling  to  the  "  Masters  " 
and  adhere  to  their  decisions. 

If  we  mistake  not,  this  marks  the  beginning  of  a 
new  era  in  Theosophy,  —  at  least  in  India,  —  an  era 
during  which  the  movement  will  be  entirely  directed 
and  worked  by  those  who  are  the  authorized  mouth- 
pieces of  the  glorified  dead !  Thus  the  movement  is 
fairly  launched  upon  a  course  which  will  inevitably 
lead  it  to  something  very  much  akin  to  a  religion, 
with  its  accumulated  mysteries  and  with  a  host  of 
propelling  superstitions  of  its  own.  More  than  any 
other  land,  India  will  lend  itself  admirably  to  the 
development  and  the  propagation  of  such  a  cult. 

Theosophy  is  not  represented  by  a  very  large  num- 
ber of  organizations  and  members.  But  the  move- 
ment has  the  sympathy  of  many  who  have  not  taken 
upon  them  its  name ;  and  the  society,  at  the  present 
time,  is  certainly  in  favour  with  a  large  number  of  the 
educated  classes. 


4io  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Orthodox  pandits,  however,  are  thoroughly  suspi- 
cious of  the  movement ;  and  Mrs.  Besant's  recent  at- 
tempts to  thrust  upon  them  her  own  interpretations 
of  certain  Hindu  doctrines  —  interpretations,  too, 
which  are  foreign  to  their  own — has  led  to  a  spirit 
of  opposition,  where  but  recently  appreciation  and 
favour  existed. 

Theosophy,  as  a  harmonizer  of  faiths,  is  not  likely 
to  accomplish  much  that  will  be  permanently  good. 
Religions  to-day  have  lost  much  of  their  asperity  one 
toward  the  other.  The  study  of  Comparative  Reli- 
gion has  led  men  everywhere  to  magnify  the  asso- 
nances, rather  than  the  dissonances,  of  the  Great 
World  Faiths.  Theosophy  magnifies  into  a  cult  this 
function  of  bringing  religions  together.  It  ignores, 
however,  the  fundamental  differences  which  exist, 
brings  all  faiths  into  the  same  equational  value,  and 
assumes  that  they  are  equally  effective  as  ways  of 
salvation. 

With  such  profound  ignorance  of  the  essential 
qualities  of  the  faiths  which  are  to  be  harmonized, 
and  with  a  placid  assumption  that  these  religions 
are  of  the  same  efficacy,  only  to  different  peoples,  it 
is  impossible  to  see  how  Theosophy  can  ever  render 
a  service  to  any  of  the  faiths  or  to  the  people  who 


MODERN   RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENT  411 

are  their  adherents  which  will  not  ultimately  prove  a 
disservice  to  all.  Peace  without  truth,  like  peace 
without  honour,  will  not  ultimately  redound  to  the 
promotion  of  religion  or  to  the  salvation  of  men. 

Whatever  Theosophy  may  render  toward  the  devel- 
opment of  an  Oriental  literature  will  depend  largely 
upon  its  attitude  toward  truth  and  religion  in  gen- 
eral, and  toward  Hinduism  and  Christianity  in  par- 
ticular. Its  bitter  attitude  toward  Christianity  in  the 
past  does  not  encourage  one  to  believe  that  hereafter 
the  literature  fostered  by  it  will  be  either  very  impar- 
tial or  very  sane.  And  yet  we  shall  be  thankful  for 
anything  it  may  accomplish  in  the  preservation  of 
Sanskrit  manuscripts  and  in  the  development  of  a 
wholesome  literature  of  any  kind  on  lines  purely 
Oriental. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE    PROGRESS   OF   CHRISTIANITY   IN   INDIA 
I 

FOR  at  least  seventeen  centuries  Christianity  has 
found  a  home  in  India.  The  Syrian  Church  was  the 
first  to  gather  converts,  and  it  still  exists  as  a  separate 
sect  of  300,000  souls  in  a  small  part  of  Malabar. 
Roman  Catholicism,  also,  has  had  here  its  six  centu- 
ries of  struggles  and  varied  fortunes,  and  now  claims 
its  1,500,000  followers.  On  July  9,  1906,  the  Protes- 
tants celebrated  the  bicentenary  of  the  landing  of 
their  first  two  missionaries  at  Tranquebar,  on  the 
Coromandel  coast.  Ziegenbalg  and  Plutscho  were 
truly  men  of  God,  and  inaugurated  a  work  which 
to-day  has  its  ramifications  in  every  part  of  this  vast 
peninsula. 

They  introduced  a  new  era  of  missionary  effort  for 
India.  Former  endeavours  were  ecclesiastical.  Great 
men,  indeed,  had  wrought  for  Christ  in  this  land ;  but 
their  chief  aim  had  been  to  establish  a  religion  of 

forms   and   ceremonies.     In   the  matter  of   ritual   in 

412 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA      413 

religion,  Hinduism  has  little  to  learn  from,  and  has 
much  to  suggest  to,  western  ecclesiastics.  The  early 
failure  of  our  faith  to  secure  marked  and  permanent 
success  in  this  land  finds  its  chief  cause  here. 

Ziegenbalg  began  in  the  right  way.  He  identified 
himself  with  the  people;  he  studied  well  their  lan- 
guage, and  hastened  to  incarnate  his  faith  in  vernac- 
ular literature;  and,  above  all,  he  proceeded  at  once 
to  translate  into  the  language  of  the  people  the  Word 
of  God.  Never  before  had  the  Bible  been  translated 
into  an  Indian  tongue.  After  thirteen  years  of  ser- 
vice, this  great  missionary  died ;  but  he  left  to  his 
successors  the  heritage  of  a  vernacular  Bible,  which 
has  wrought  mightily  in  South  India  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  the  people.  He  also  set  the  pace  for  subse- 
quent missionaries  of  his  persuasion,  who,  in  these 
two  centuries,  have  practically  translated  God's  Word 
into  every  important  Indian  dialect.  The  Bible  in  his 
own  vernacular  lies  open,  inviting  every  native  of  India 
to-day;  and  in  many  vernaculars  the  translation  has 
been  revised  more  than  once.  This  stands  as  a  nota- 
ble triumph  of  Protestantism  during  these  two  cen- 
turies in  India. 

'The  writer  has  a  copy  of  one  of  the  earliest  Tamil 
books  prepared  by  these  pioneers  of  our  faith.  These 


4i4  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

books  have  already  grown  into  a  large  library  —  the 
best-developed  Christian  literature  in  any  vernacular 
of  the  East.  All  over  the  land  mission  presses  are 
annually  pouring  forth  their  many  millions  of  pages 
both  to  nourish  and  cheer  the  infant  Christian  com- 
munity, and  to  win  to  Christ  the  multiplying  readers 
among  non-Christians.  The  press  has  already  become, 
perhaps,  the  most  important  agency  in  the  furtherance 
of  Christian  thought  and  life  in  this  land. 

One  is  impressed  with  the  manifoldness  of  the  work 
which  began  in  so  much  simplicity  two  centuries  ago. 
The  missionary  is  no  longer  the  preacher  under  some 
shady  tree,  addressing  a  few  ignorant,  ill-clad  peasants. 
He  is  actively  engaged  in  all  departments  of  Christian 
effort.  A  Protestant  mission  is  an  elaborately  organ- 
ized activity,  pursuing  all  lines  of  work  for  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  people.  It  has  not  only  churches  which 
engage  in  varied  forms  of  pastoral  effort;  it  has  also 
its  staff  of  evangelists  and  Bible  women  who  carry  the 
message  of  life  to  all  the  villages.  In  these  missions 
there  are  not  only  10,000  day  schools,  with  their 
375,000  scholars,  besides  30,000  youth  who  are  in  the 
307  higher  institutions.  There  are  also  thousands  of 
young  men  and  women,  in  many  institutions,  under- 
going careful  preparation  as  teachers  and  preachers. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF   CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA      417 

There  is  also  the  medical  host  who  treated  2,000,000 
patients  last  year;  there  are  industrial  institutions 
under  well-trained  men,  peasant  settlements  for  the 
poor  oppressed  ryots,  and  schools  for  the  blind  and 
the  deaf-mute.  There  is  hardly  an  agency  which  can 
bring  light,  comfort,  life,  and  inspiration  to  men  which 
is  not  utilized  by  modern  missions  in  India. 

But  the  progress  of  these  two  centuries  has  been 
chiefly  on  lines  which  defy  the  columns  of  the  statis- 
tician and  elude  the  ken  of  the  ordinary  globe-trotter. 

The  number  of  people  that  have  been  brought  to 
Christ,  and  who  now  represent  Protestantism  in  this 
land  are,  indeed,  far  fewer  than  might  have  been  ex- 
pected. A  round  million  of  a  community  after  two 
centuries  of  effort  among  a  population  of  300,000,000 
is  not  a  thing  of  which  to  boast.  And  this  may  seem 
the  more  discouraging  when  it  is  remembered  that 
there  are  now  engaged  in  this  work  ninety-one  differ- 
ent missionary  societies  of  many  lands,  and  supporting 
a  missionary  force  of  4000  men  and  women.  There 
is  also  a  native  Pastorate  of  1 100  ordained  men,  with 
a  total  Indian  agency  of  26,000  men  and  women. 

So  great  a  force  of  workers  would,  indeed,  warrant 
us  in  expecting  larger  results  in  conversions. 

But  it  should  be  remembered  that  this  agency  is 


2E 


4i8  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

chiefly  the  product  of  the  last  few  decades  only,  and 
is  now  multiplying  in  numbers  and  increasing  in  effi- 
ciency at  a  very  rapid  rate.  At  the  present  time,  fully 
200  of  the  Indian  agents  of  our  missions  are  university 
graduates,  and  a  still  larger  number  are  of  partial  col- 
lege training. 

The  Indian  Christian  community  itself,  though  in 
the  main  of  low  social  origin,  has  made  remarkable 
progress  in  education  and  manly  independence.  It  is, 
already,  perhaps  the  best-educated  community  in  India. 
And  it  is  feeling  increasingly  its  opportunities  and 
its  obligations.  It  was  only  recently  that  its  growing 
sense  of  national  importance  and  its  duties  led  it  to 
organize  a  "  National  Missionary  Society,"  which  is 
directed  by  Indian  leadership,  supported  by  Indian 
funds,  and  its  work  is  to  be  done  by  India's  own  sons. 
This  society  enters  upon  its  career  very  auspiciously, 
and  is  not  only  symptomatic  of  present  conditions,  but 
is  also  pregnant  with  hope  for  the  Indian  Church  of 
the  future. 

It  took  many  years  to  lay  deeply  the  foundation  of 
our  mission  organization.  Indeed,  the  foundation  is 
not  quite  completed.  And  yet  the  work  of  super- 
structure has  already  begun,  and  more  rapid  results 
may  now  be  expected. 


THE   PROGRESS  OF   CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA      419 

But  the  more  hidden  and  indirect  results  of  Protes- 
tant Christian  efforts  in  this  land  encourage  the  Chris- 
tian worker  more  than  all  the  direct  results. 

During  the  last  century,  at  least  twenty  laws  have 
been  enacted  with  a  view  to  abolishmg"'cruel  religious^ 
rites^and  removing  revolting  customs  and  disabilities, 
such  as  Hinduism,  from  time  immemorial,  has  estab- 
lished among  the  people.  These  laws  were  enacted  in 
the  teeth  of  opposition  from  the  religious  rulers  of  the 
land,  and,  in  more  cases  than  one,  led  to  serious  riot 
and  religious  fanaticism.  But  the  growing  spirit  of] 
Christ  in  the  land  could  not  tolerate  these  heathenish 
customs ;  so  they  had  to  go. 

The  new^spirit  which  hasjtaken  possessioj^ofjthe 
classesjn^  India  is  in  striking  contrast  with  the  spir-it— 
of  the  past.  The  new  education,  imparted  on  modern 
lines,  in  thousands  of  institutions  scattered  over  the 
land,  has  brought  its  revenge  of  sentiment  upon  former 
thinking  and  believing.  Western  philosophy  has  had  , 
a  noble  share  in  the  achievement ;  and  the  schoolmas- 
ter has  been  a  pioneer  in  the  work  of  transforming  the 
sentiments  and  ideals  of  the  people.  The  holy  men 
of  India,  —  the  ecclesiastics,  —  by  their  conservatism, 
have  lost  all  influence  over  the  many  thousands  who 
have  passed  through  the  universities,  and  who  repre- 


ot 

:} 


420  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

sent  the  intelligence,  culture,  and  advancing  power  of 
India. 

It  is  no  empty  boast  to  claim  that  our  mission 
schools  and  colleges  have  had  a  conspicuous  share  in 
this  work  of  enlightenment,  and  in  the  transformation 
of  popular  and  fundamental  thoughts  and  sentiments. 
The  religious  unrest  of  the  day  is  one  of  the  most 
prominent  features  of  this  advance.  It  is  true  that, 
during  the  last  few  years,  there  passed  over  India  a 
peculiar  wave  of  religious  reaction  in  favour  of  old 

«  Hindu  conceptions  and  ancient  rites.     But  these  are 
•*"'  entirely  the  result  of  a  new  and  vigorous,  though  not 

^sane,  patriotism.  A  loud  cry  of  " Swadeska"  (home- 
land) has  swept  over  the  country.  It  demands  affec- 
tion and  acceptance  for  everything  that  is  of  the  East, 
and  the  opposite  sentiments  for  things  western.  All 
that  is  of  Hindu  origin,  and  everything  of  eastern  as- 
pect, is,  for  that  very  reason,  regarded  as  sound  and 
delectable.  Of  course,  this  reaction  has  found  its 
widest  utterances  in  matters  religious;  and  Hindu 
men  of  western  culture  to-day  will  applaud,  though 
they  will  not  practise,  religious  customs  and  ideas 
which  were  laughed  at  by  their  class  a  quarter  of 
a  century  ago.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  this 
wild  Orientalism  is  a  thing  which  should  neither 


THE   PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY   IN   INDIA      421 

be  discouraged  nor  condemned.  It  needs  balance 
and  sanity;  but  it  is  a  true  expression  of  the  awak- 
ened self-assertion  and  the  dawning  sense  of  lib- 
erty among  the  people.  In  time,  the  movement  will 
become  chastened,  and  will  throw  off  much  of  its 
present  folly.  It  will  then  render  for  India  and  its 
redemption  more  than  anything  else  has  in  the  past. 

In  the  meanwhile,  however,  there  is  a  quiet  revolu- 
tion, both  religious  and  social,  doing  its  blessed  work 
in  all  sections  of  the  community. 

New  religious  organizations  have  sprung  into  ex- 
istence and  are  winning  followers  among  the  best 
members  of  the  community.  The  Brahmo  Somaj 
and  various  other  Somajes  furnish,  as  we  have  seen, 
asylum  and  rest  for  many  men  of  culture  who  have 
abandoned  polytheism  and  all  that  pertains  to  it. 
The  Arya  Somaj  appeals  to,  and  gathers  in,  men 
from  all  ranges. 

Social  reform  has  its  organizations  and  its  gather- 
ings all  over  the  land  where  the  Hindu  orator  finds 
abundant  opportunity  to  denounce  the  social  evils 
which  are  a  curse  to  all  the  people;  and,  alas!  then 
returns  to  his  home,  where  he  meekly  submits  to  these 
same  social  tyrannies  which  dominate  his  own  family. 
What  India  needs  to-day,  more  than  anything  else,  is 


422  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

even  a  small  band  of  men  who  are  imbued  with  con- 
victions and  who  are  willing  to  die  for  the  same. 
India's  redemption  will  be  nigh  when  it  can  furnish 
a  few  thousand  such  men  banded  together  to  do 
something  or  to  die  in  the  cause  of  reform. 

It  is  Protestantism  which  has  laid  growing  em- 
phasis upon  the  ethical,  rather  than  the  ecclesiastical, 
aspect  of  our  faith  ;  and  to  this  fact  can  be  attributed 
most  of  its  influence  in  the  development  of  this  new 
life  and  thought. 

Of  course,  the  British  government  has  politically 
and  socially  represented  and  promoted  these  ideas. 
It  could  not  do  otherwise  and  be  true  to  its  own 
principles.  Its  influence  has  been  the  most  perva- 
sive and  marked  in  the  development  of  what  is  best 
in  thought  and  truest  in  life. 

Perhaps  no  change  has  overtaken  Protestant  mis- 
sions during  these  two  centuries  greater  than  that 
which  has  transformed  the  missionaries  themselves. 
There  is  a  wide  gulf  between  Ziegenbalg  and  Carey. 
There  is  a  still  wider  one  between  the  Carey  of  a 
century  ago  and  his  great-grandson  who  is  a  mis- 
sionary in  North  India  to-day.  In  devotion  and  zeal 
for  the  Master,  they  are  all  one ;  but  in  their  concep- 
tion of  Christianity,  of  Hinduism,  and  of  the  mis- 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA      423 

sionary  motive,  they  are  much  wider  apart  than  many 
imagine. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  Protestant  mis- 
sionaries, as  a  body,  are  no  longer  isolated  from  each 
other  and  animated  by  mutual  suspicions  and  im- 
pelled by  petty  jealousies,  as  in  the  past.  Their 
development  in  amity,  comity,  and  organized  fellow- 
ship, even  during  the  last  decade,  is  marvellous. 
Federation  and  organic  ecclesiastical  union  are  be- 
coming the  order  of  the  day.  Four  denominations 
of  America  and  Scotland  are  now  perfecting  such  a 
scheme  in  South  India ;  and  this  is  only  the  begin- 
ning of  an  ever  expanding  movement  for  Christian 
fellowship  all  over  the  land.  No  one  knows  what 
grand  results  it  will  achieve.  We  all  know,  however, 
that  the  fraternal  regard,  sympathy,  and  confidence  is 
far  removed  from  the  sad  divisiveness  of  the  past, 
that  it  is  pregnant  with  blessing  in  the  coming  of 
the  Kingdom  of  God,  and  that  it  is  far  in  advance 
of  the  spirit  of  union  which  prevails  in  England  or 
America.  In  this  we  believe  that  the  East  is  to 
open  the  way  for  the  West. 

These  and  many  other  facts  encourage  those  who 
look  to  the  speedy  Christianizing  of  this  land.  And 
yet  we  cannot,  I  repeat,  ignore  the  fact  of  the  relative 


424  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

meagreness  of  the  results.  It  is  a  sad  truth  that  the 
total  Protestant  Indian  community,  at  the  present 
time,  is  only  one  three-hundredth  part  of  the  popu- 
lation ! 

I  would  not  be  pessimistic,  however,  even  in  this 
matter  of  numerical  growth.  In  the  past,  we  have 
too  much  made  a  fetich  of  figures,  and  our  faith 
has  been  too  much  pinned  to  statistics. 

But  the  lessons  of  history  must  be  well  learned  and 
thoroughly  digested,  if  the  future  of  Christianity  is  to 
improve  upon  her  past  in  India.  For,  be  it  remem- 
bered, Christianity  never  met  with  so  doughty  a  foe 
as  that  which  confronts  it  in  this  land.  The  ancient 
faiths  of  Greece  and  Rome,  which  Christianity  over- 
came, were  infantile  and  imbecile  as  compared  with  the 
subtle  wisdom  and  the  mighty  resistance  of  Brahman- 
ism.  The  conditions  of  the  conflict  in  India  are  dif- 
ferent from  those  ever  met  before  by  our  militant 
faith.  The  subtle  and  deadening  philosophy  of  the 
land,  the  haughty  pride  of  its  religious  leaders,  the 
great  inertia  of  the  people,  the  mighty  tyranny  of 
caste,  the  debasing  ritual  of  Hinduism  and  its  de- 
bauching idolatry,  —  all  these  constitute  a  resisting 
fortress  whose  overthrow  seems  all  but  impossible. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA     425 

II 

And  yet  I  strongly  believe  in  the  ultimate  triumph 
of  our  faith  in  India.  Under  God  this  mighty  fortress 
of  Hinduism  will  capitulate.  Nor  do  I  think  that  the 
day  of  Christian  dominance  is  so  far  away  as  many 
missionaries  are  inclined  to  think.  There  is  an  accu- 
mulation of  forces  and  a  multiplication  of  spiritual 
powers  which  are  now  operating  in  behalf  of  our  faith 
and  against  the  ancestral  religion  of  India,  such  as 
will  work  wonders  in  the  future  religious  development 
of  the  land.  But  this  conquest  of  our  faith  will  not 
be  that  which  too  many  of  us  are  wont  to  anticipate 
and  to  pray  for.  The  religious  forms  of  life  and  of 
thought,  which  we  of  the  West  have  inherited  and 
in  whose  environment  we  have  grown  up,  we  have 
come  to  identify  with  the  essence  of  our  religion ;  and 
it  seems  all  but  impossible  for  us  to  think  of  a  Chris- 
tianity apart  from  these  outward  forms.  I  believe 
that  there  is  to  be  a  rude  awakening  for  our  children 
and  grandchildren,  if  not  for  ourselves,  in  this  matter. 

The  western  type  of  Christianity  will  not  survive 
the  conflict  in  India.  Western  modes  of  thought 
and  forms  of  belief  will  be  supplanted  by  those  better 
suited  to  the  land.  Occidental  doctrines  and  aspects 


426  INDIA:    ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

of  our  faith  will  give  way  to  those  conceived  from 
the  Oriental  standpoint.  I  believe,  for  instance,  that 
the  most  mischievous  doctrine  of  pantheism  will  sur- 
render its  elements  of  truth  (for  it  has  an  important 
admixture  of  truth)  to  the  formation  of  a  new  concep- 
tion of  God,  which  will  appeal  to  and  captivate  the 
Indian  mind  and  heart.  Indeed,  we  are  witnessing, 
this  very  day,  even  in  the  far  West,  the  influence  of 
India  in  her  monistic  overemphasis  upon  the  divine 
immanence,  working  toward  a  new  Christian  concep- 
tion of  God.  Modern  interchange  of  thought  is  thus 
giving  to  India,  even  in  America,  her  influence  in  the 
shaping  of  modern  belief.  And  if  it  be  thus  in 
matters  of  fundamental  belief,  much  more  will  it  be 
so  in  matters  of  outward  expression  and  in  the  unes- 
sential forms  of  Christian  truth.  Some  of  us  of  the 
West  are  seeing  increasingly  the  serious  incongruity 
which  exists  between  our  way  of  thinking  and  of 
putting  our  thought  into  living  form,  and  the  way  of 
the  people  about  us.  And  we  are  not  convinced,  as 
we  perhaps  once  were,  that  it  is  the  obtuseness,  or  the 
religious  perversity,  of  the  Indian  mind  which  is  the 
cause  of  this.  The  sooner  the  better  we  realize  that 
between  the  people  of  the  East  and  of  the  West  there 
is  a  wide  mental  gulf  which  may,  indeed,  by  our  asso- 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA      427 

ciating  together,  be  narrowed,  but  never  eliminated. 
And  the  outward  type  of  Christianity,  after  western 
pressure  has  been  taken  away  from  this  land,  will 
depend  upon  the  mental  make-up  and  peculiar 
spiritual  aspect  of  the  Indian  Christian.  And  until 
he  is  able  to  furnish  and  to  enforce  this,  which  I  call 
the  Oriental  type  of  Christianity,  he  will  never  be 
able  to  make  his  faith  appeal  to  his  brothers,  and  to 
make  it  an  indigenous  faith  in  India. 

Nor  do  I  think  that  the  Christianity  which  is  to 
prevail  in  India  will  be  encased  in  the  present  eccle- 
siasticism  which  assumes  and  claims  monopoly  of 
our  faith.  I  can  conceive  the  possibility  of  there 
being  a  vast  amount  of  Christianity  —  a  living  and 
a  self-propagating  Christianity  —  outside  the  pale 
of  organized  and  institutional  Christianity  in  India. 
It  is  so  in  the  West  to-day.  The  organized  churches 
of  the  West  have  within  themselves  an  ever  diminish- 
ing portion  of  the  vital  Christian  life  and  aspirations 
of  the  country.  Christianity  has  overleapt  ecclesi- 
astic bounds.  Its  spirit  is  overflowing,  in  living 
streams,  into  the  life  of  a  thousand  organizations 
which  are  altruistic  and  philanthropic,  outside  the 
limits  of  ecclesiastical  Christianity.  It  will  be  so  in 
India,  and  throughout  the  world.  And  the  Christian 


428  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

Church  must  take  this  into  account  and  shape  its 
policy  accordingly. 

However  this  may  be,  East  Indians  will  increas- 
ingly claim,  as  the  Japanese  are  now  claiming,  the 
right  to  decide  for  themselves  the  forms  of  polity  and 
the  types  of  ritual  which  they  will  choose  and  culti- 
vate as  their  own. 

I  do  not  say,  of  course,  that  the  present  forms  will 
be  entirely  discarded.  But  they  will  be  so  modified 
and  supplemented  that  they  will  present  an  ecclesias- 
tical type  of  their  own. 

And  why  should  they  not,  if  our  faith  is  to  fit  well 
the  Oriental  mind,  and  is  to  become  a  gracious  power 
in  its  life?  The  growing  opposition  among  the 
educated  men  of  India,  at  the  present  time,  is  not 
really  antagonism  to  Christianity  itself,  but  to  its 
western  garb  and  spirit.  And  there  is  much  reason 
for  this  attitude  of  mind.  Conciliation  and  adapta- 
tion has  not  been  the  characteristic  of  the  mind  of 
the  West  in  presenting  its  faith  to  the  East.  This 
did  not  make  so  much  difference,  so  long  as  the 
Indian  was  submissive  and  had  not  waked  up  to  the 
spirit  of  self-assertion.  But  to-day,  when  that  spirit 
is  so  rampant,  and  when  a  new  nationalism  and  a 
half-spurious  patriotism  glories  in  everything  eastern 


THE    PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA      429 

and  is  annoyed  by  all  that  is  western,  the  matter  of 
adaptation  has  become  all-important. 

The  relative  barrenness  of  our  faith  during  past 
centuries  in  India  was  largely,  if  not  entirely,  due  to 
its  foreign  ecclesiastical  forms  and  its  shibboleths 
pronounced  in  foreign  tongues.  The  Christianity 
of  the  future  in  India  must  breathe  of  the  spirit,  and 
speak  forth  in  the  language  and  life,  of  the  people. 

I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  the  battle  cry  of  the 
Christian  Church  will  soon  be  lost  in  the  ever  swell- 
ing tide  of  enthusiasm  for  the  Kingdom  of  God. 
Christians  will  seek  less  to  promote  this  or  that  de- 
nomination, and  more  and  more  to  cause  to  come  in 
power  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven.  And  India  is  a 
land  which  will  lend  itself  very  readily  to  this  transfer 
of  emphasis.  There  is  much  in  the  mystical  type  of 
the  Hindu  mind  that  leads  us  to  anticipate  preemi- 
nence for  India  in  this  change  of  emphasis  from  out- 
ward organization  to  deep-working  spiritual  forces 
and  realities. 

India,  which  has  been  the  most  prolific  land  in 
giving  birth  to  religions,  and  in  being  at  present  the 
asylum  of  all  the  great  faiths  of  the  world,  will  not 
be  slow  to  give  to  Christianity  that  form  and  aspect 
which  will  most  please  her. 


430  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

It  is  therefore  important  that  all  the  Christian 
leaders  of  India  should  not  only  take  note  of  these 
facts,  but  should  also  do  their  utmost  to  help  in 
the  desired  consummation,  and  make  Christianity  in 
India  a  faith  that  will  appeal  to  every  man  and 

woman  in  the  land. 

Ill 

The  conquest  of  our  faith  in  India  will  be  not  the 
less,  but  the  more,  thorough,  because  it  will  be  not 
only  of  the  letter  but  also  and  chiefly  of  the  spirit. 

There  are  a  few  things  which  are  fundamental  to 
our  faith,  and  which  will  become  the  universal  and 
permanent  possession  of  India. 

i.  The  spirit  and  principles  of  Christianity  will 
prevail  and  will  dominate  the  land.  Christian,  as 
distinct  from  Hindu,  principles  are  already  making 
wonderful  headway  in  the  country.  Many  new  insti- 
tutions have  been  organized  in  the  land,  whose  prin- 
ciples are  those  of  Christ,  and  not  of  Manu.  Even 
the  oldest  institutions  of  the  country  are  becoming 
affected  by  the  desire  to  appear  modern,  which  really 
means  an  ambition  to  introduce  Christian  methods 
and  principles.  Educated  Hindus,  especially,  add  to 
this  the  peculiar  weakness  of  interpreting  things 
Hindu  by  a  Christian  terminology.  The  philosophy 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA      431 

which  they  have  imbibed  and  the  standpoint  to  which 
they  have  been  accustomed  are  western  and,  chiefly, 
Christian.  So  that  when  they  study  their  own  faith 
they  do  so  with  these  Christian  prepossessions;  and 
even  when  they  defend  their  ancestral  religion,  they 
really  defend  not  the  indigenous  product  of  India, 
such  as  is  taught  by  the  Hindu  pandit  and  believed 
by  the  mass  of  the  people,  but  Hinduism  Christianized 
and  clothed  in  the  garb  of  the  West  and  spoken  in  the 
accents  of  a  Christian. 

Hindu  Swamis,  who  have  been  educated  in  Chris- 
tian mission  schools,  and  have  spent  a  few  years  in 
the  far  West,  surrounded  by  a  Christian  atmosphere, 
imbibing  Christian  sentiments,  and  unconsciously 
adopting  the  Christian  viewpoint,  return  to  India 
upon  a  wave  of  popular  excitement  and  give  public 
addresses  and  receive  the  plaudits  of  their  grateful 
countrymen.  But  what  is  it  that  such  men  as  Vive- 
kananda  and  Abhedananda,  and  all  the  rest  of  the 
Ananda  tribe,  teach  upon  their  return  to  India?  It  is 
certainly  not  an  orthodox  Hinduism,  nor  is  it  the  pure 
philosophy  of  the  East.  It  is  rather  a  strange  com- 
pound in  which  Christianity  figures  as  prominently 
as  does  Hinduism,  and,  perhaps,  more  conspicu- 
ously. What  was  the  caste  system  recently  enunci- 


43*  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

ated  by  Abhedananda  in  Madras?  It  is  certainly  not 
a  thing  known  in  India  by  that  name.  And  I  have  no 
doubt  that  his  whole  audience  smiled  when  he  pre- 
sented his  conception  of  a  caste  system  so  foreign  to 
all  Hindu  ideas  and  practice.  It  is  just  so  with  his 
Vedantism,  and  with  his  interpretation  of  all  the 
religious  teachings  of  this  land.  They  are  now  con- 
strued in  terms  foreign  to  the  rishi  and  to  the  pandit. 
But  (and  this  the  point  I  wish  to  emphasize)  these 
interpretations  meet  increasingly  with  the  applause 
and  acceptance  of  educated  Hindu  audiences.  In 
other  words,  a  Christian  colouring  and  glamour 
thrown  over  Hinduism  is  adding  to  its  popularity 
in  the  land. 

In  the  general  way  of  looking  at  religious  things, 
and  especially  of  apprehending  religious  thought,  there 
is  to-day  almost  as  wide  a  gulf  between  the  educated 
and  cultured  Hindu,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  author- 
ized religious  instructors  of  India,  on  the  other,  as 
there  is  between  the  same  learned  man  of  the  East 
and  the  thoughtful  man  of  the  West. 

Or,  if  we  look  at  the  multiplying  institutions  of 
the  country,  which  truly  represent  the  thoughts  and 
sentiments  of  the  leading  people  of  India,  we  can 
easily  see  that  they  are  imbued  with  non-Hindu,  if 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY   IN   INDIA      433 

not  anti- Hindu,  ideas  and  motives.  The  various 
Somajes  and  other  religious  movements,  which  mean 
so  much  in  the  life  of  India  to-day,  are  more  or 
less  an  endeavour  to  interpret  life  from  a  non- Hindu 
standpoint,  which  often  means  a  Christian  stand- 
point. In  any  case,  the  religious  reform  movements 
of  India  at  the  present  time  breathe  largely  the  spirit 
of  rebellion  against  old  Hindu  conceptions. 

When  we  think  of  such  important  movements  as 
that  of  Social  Reform,  we  can  see  the  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity completely  dominant,  and  in  sharp  antithesis 
to  Hindu  teaching  and  ritual.  The  Social  Reform 
movement  in  India  is  the  spirit  of  Christianity,  trying 
to  express  itself  with  as  little  offence  as  possible  to 
orthodox  Hinduism,  and  yet  constantly  antagonizing 
its  deepest  principles  and  eating  into  its  very  vitals. 

The  two  forces  which,  next  to  direct  Christian 
effort,  do  most  for  the  promulgation  of  Christian 
principles  in  this  land,  are  the  public  schools  and 
the  government  itself.  The  educational  system  which 
now  prevails,  and  which  is  growing  in  power,  is  dis- 
tinctly a  promoter  of  Christian  thought  and  principle. 
We  often  call  these  schools  godless ;  but  we  do  them 
an  injustice.  Their  work  may  be  largely  negative ; 
but  their  teaching  turns  the  mind  of  the  young  away 


2F 


434  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

from  the  silly  superstitions  and  the  absurd  practices 
of  popular  Hinduism,  and  establishes  modern  concep- 
tions, which,  indeed,  are  Christian  conceptions  of  life 
and  of  conduct. 

The  government  is,  in  an  important  sense,  estab- 
lished upon  Christian  principles;  and  in  all  its  ad- 
ministrative processes  exemplifies  the  Christian,  as 
distinct  from  the  Hindu  and  Brahmanic,  view  of 
justice  and  of  right  conduct;  so  that,  if  one  were 
able  to  perceive  clearly  the  spiritual  forces  at  work  in 
the  institutional  and  social  life  of  India,  he  would  see 
not  only  that  the  foundation,  but  also  that  largely  the 
superstructure,  is  becoming  Christian  in  its  character. 

2.  In  the  second  place,  the  Christ  Ideal  of  Life 
is  acquiring  ever  increasing  attraction  and  power  in 
the  land.  India  has  never  possessed  an  incarnated 
ideal  of  her  own.  No  god  in  all  her  pantheon,  and 
not  one  among  all  her  noble  sages,  has  ever  posed 
before  the  followers  of  Hinduism,  or  has  ever  been 
thought  of  by  Hindu  devotees,  as  the  exemplar  of  men 
and  the  ideal  of  human  life.  To  many  thousands  who 
are  outward  members  of  the  Hindu  faith,  and  who 
would  not  dream  of  being  baptized  into  institutional 
Christianity,  Jesus  Christ  has  become  the  Ideal  of 
Life.  He  represents  to  them  that  moral  type  of  per- 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA      435 

fection  and  ethical  nobility  of  manhood  to  which  they 
daily  aspire.  Krishna  may  be  praised  by  the  millions, 
notwithstanding  his  immoralities ;  and  Rama  may  be 
extolled  and  even  loved  for  his  limited  virtue ;  Yudhi- 
stra  may  be  called  "  Dharman,"  notwithstanding  his 
unrighteous  passion  for  the  dice.  But  Christ  only,  in 
the  eyes  of  modern  educated  India,  stands  the  perfect 
test  of  character.  All  over  the  land,  Hindus  of  cul- 
ture, of  serious  thought,  and  of  ambition  to  reach  after 
high  ethical  standards  see  in  Jesus  Christ  the  only 
inspiration  and  immaculate  example  of  life  that  all 
history,  myth,  and  legend  present.  And  there  is  not 
a  town  in  India  to-day  where  there  are  not  found 
these  men  of  power  and  influence  who  are  studying 
eagerly  the  life  of  Jesus,  are  pondering  over  the  Gos- 
pel narratives;  and  are  reading  such  books  of  Christian 
devotion  as  Thomas  a  Kempis's  "  Imitation  of  Christ." 
This  last-named  book  is  now  being  translated  by  a 
Brahman  gentleman,  a  friend  of  the  writer,  and  pub- 
lished by  a  Hindu  firm  for  its  Hindu  readers!  I  have 
known  such  men  for  many  years,  and  am  assured  that 
their  tribe  is  increasing;  they  are  men  who  for  the 
first  time  have  found  the  deepest  yearnings  of  their 
soul  answered  in  the  example  of  Jesus. 

Ask  any  of  them  for  their  reason,  and  they  will  tell 


436  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

you  that  Christ  is  of  the  East,  like  themselves,  and 
that  His  example  appeals  to  them  with  unique  power. 

In  India,  the  ideal  of  life  has  been  one  of  restraint. 
Starting  with  the  conviction  that  human  life  is  an 
unmixed  evil,  the  restraint  of  passion  and  the  elimina- 
tion of  every  human  emotion  (the  best  as  well  as  the 
worst)  has  been  to  the  Hindu  the  goal  and  consumma- 
tion of  life.  Nothing  can  be  more  inadequate  than 
this;  and  the  Hindu  is  beginning  to  feel  it.  Jesus 
represents  Culture  and  Restraint.  With  him  the 
restraint  of  the  lower  passions  is  with  a  view  to  the 
culture  of  the  higher.  The  man  of  sin  must  die,  that 
the  man  of  God  may  live  and  prosper.  This  is  the 
Christ  ideal,  as  opposed  to  the  Brahman ic.  And  the 
leaven  of  this  ideal  of  life  is  spreading  all  over  India 
and  is  transforming  the  aspirations  of  millions.  There 
is  nothing  more  inspiring  or  comforting  than  the 
assurance  which  we  have  that  the  Christ  life  is  becom- 
ing the  dominant  ideal  among  the  classes  of  India,  as 
it  is  to  a  less  degree  among  the  masses. 

A  Brahman  gentleman  had  the  presumption  to  say 
to  me,  recently,  that  he  and  his  f ell ow-Brah mans  and 
other  Hindus  were  able  to  understand  the  Christ  much 
better  than  we  of  the  West.  He  also  claimed  that 
they  could  understand  the  deep  significance  and  the 


THE   PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA      437 

delicate  shading  of  His  thought  better  than  we  who  are 
not  of  the  East,  like  them.  As  a  man  who  had  taught 
and  had  tried  to  live  the  Christ  in  this  land  for  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century,  I  smiled  at  the  audacity  of 
his  remark.  And  yet  I  knew  that  that  man  had 
visions  of  Christ  that  I  had  not;  and  that  he  has  a 
fondness  for  Thomas  a  Kempis's  book,  beyond,  perhaps, 
what  I  myself  possess.  There  are  aspects  of  the 
teaching  and  of  the  life  of  Jesus  which  appeal  more 
powerfully  to  his  Oriental  and  deeply  mystical  nature 
than  they  can  possibly  to  the  minds  of  all  western 
men.  Of  one  thing,  however,  I  am  assured ;  namely, 
that  there  is  a  growing  host  of  Hindus  in  high  position, 
and  in  low,  who  are  enamoured  of  that  ideal  of  life 
which  our  Lord  taught  and  exemplified ;  and  the  fact 
that  they  interpret  that  life  differently  from  myself 
causes  me  less  sorrow  than  it  does  a  desire  to  under- 
stand better  their  standpoint  of  appreciation. 

3.  I  believe  also  that  the  Incarnation  of  our  Lord, 
in  its  uniqueness  and  supreme  power  as  the  true 
manifestation  of  God,  is  finding  rapidly  increasing 
appreciation  among  the  people  of  India. 

India  is  the  land  of  a  myriad  incarnations.  The 
doctrine  has  run  to  seed,  as  it  were,  among  this  people. 
They  are  burdened  with  the  excess  of  their  eagerness 


433  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

to  find  God,  and  with  their  manifold  imagination  in 
giving  Him  form  and  earthly  existence.  There  is  no 
doctrine  in  Hinduism  which  has  been  carried  to  such 
a  reductio  ad  absurdum. 

Hindus  to-day  would  gladly  accept  Christ  as  one  of 
Vishnu's  incarnations,  if  Christians  would  permit.  I 
am  not  sure  but  that  the  tenth  incarnation  of  Vishnu 
was  meant  to  represent  Christ.  In  any  case,  their 
growing  familiarity  with  Him  is  gradually  creating  in 
their  minds  a  disgust  with  the  monstrosities  of  their 
own  incarnations.  Many  of  them  are  learning  that 
God's  Incarnation  in  Christ  is  the  only  one  which  has 
"  descended "  to  the  earth  for  the  spiritual  uplifting 
and  redemption  of  our  race ;  and,  therefore,  that  it  is 
the  only  incarnation  which  has  within  itself  the  seed 
of  permanence  and  of  universality.  The  petty, 
grotesque,  and  local  "descents"  of  India  will  satisfy 
no  one  in  these  days  of  growing  breadth  and  union, 
when  the  people  are  aspiring  after  an  all- India 
nationality. 

In  Christ  only  is  India  finding  the  perfect  revelation 
of  God,  because  He  alone  revealed  Him  as  the  Father 
of  boundless  love ;  God,  the  Father  of  all  men,  loving 
them  with  an  infinite  passion  and  seeking  them  even 
unto  death,  —  that  is  the  message  of  the  Christian 


THE   PROGRESS   OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA      439 

Incarnation.  And  how  strangely  does  it  contrast  with 
the  moral  obliquity  and  selfish  indifference  to  human 
interest  which  characterize  Hindu  incarnations!  In 
Christ  do  we  find  that  God  is  the  ever  present,  personal, 
loving  Father,  seeking  to  bring  home  again  His  lost 
children.  He  is  supremely  just  and  holy  as  Ruler  and 
Provider;  but  His  justice  and  holiness  are  illumined 
and  transfused  by  His  love.  And  as  the  Eternal  Spirit 
He  is  striving  in  the  hearts  of  men  to  bring  them  to 
Himself.  This  is  the  incarnation  which  is  gaining 
ever  increasing  power  in  this  land  and  whose  worship 
is  spreading  from  Cape  Cormorin  to  the  Himalayas. 

4.  The  cross  of  Christ  will  be  accepted  in  India  as 
the  highest  expression  of  God's  love  to  man. 

It  is  true  that,  among  many  Hindus  to-day,  as  among 
the  Greeks  and  Jews  of  old,  the  cross  of  Christ  is  an 
offence  and  a  stumbling-block.  The  idea  of  vicarious 
atonement  runs  counter  to  the  long-cherished  doctrine 
of  Karma.  And  it  is  possible  that  the  universal  prev- 
alence of  the  Karma  doctrine  in  the  land  will  give  to 
the  doctrine  of  atonement  the  same  one-sided  aspect 
which  it  has  obtained  among  many  Christians  of  the 
West,  in  the  present  day,  whereby  the  element  of 
vicariousness,  or  its  God-ward  efficiency,  has  been  con- 
siderably eliminated.  They  may  remain  content  to 


440  INDIA:   ITS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

consider  the  cross  merely  as  a  supreme  manifestation 
of  love,  as  that  part  of  the  divine  example  which  has 
infinite  power  to  attract  men  toward  the  highest  life 
of  lowest  service  and  self-effacement.  However  this 
may  be,  at  present,  the  cross  in  India  has  more  sig- 
nificance than  the  trident  to  the  Hindu.  And  the 
language  of  the  cross  appeals  with  increasing  force  to 
all  men  of  thought.  And  I  am  encouraged  to  think 
that  the  modern  commendable  habit,  among  educated 
Hindus,  of  harking  back  to  the  oldest  and  the  best  of 
their  religious  writings,  may  carry  India  away  again 
from  its  emphasis  upon  Karma  to  the  original,  pre- 
Buddhistic  idea  of  vicariousness,  when,  for  instance,  in 
the  Purusha  Suktha  of  the  Rig  Veda,  the  Purusha  is 
represented  as  being  sacrificed  by  the  gods.  In  the 
Brahmanas,  also,  it  is  said  that  the  Prajabathi  sacri- 
ficed himself  in  behalf  of  the  gods. 

Indeed,  it  has  been  well  said  that  the  doctrine  of 
Karma  itself,  as  connected  with  the  doctrine  of  trans- 
migration, carries  within  itself  a  strong  element  of 
vicariousness ;  since  the  person  suffering  in  this  birth 
knows  nothing  of  the  experiences  of  a  supposed  pre- 
vious birth,  and  is,  therefore,  suffering  for  a  past  of 
which  he  is  ignorant  and  for  which  his  conscience 
cannot  hold  him  responsible. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA      441 

5.  I  believe,  also,  that  the  Christian  conception  of 
sin  is  gaining  ever  widening  acceptance  in  India  and 
will  ultimately  prevail  as  against  the  Hindu  idea. 

The  doctrine  of  atonement  and  the  doctrine  of  sin 
are  intimately  related ;  where  the  atonement  is  ignored 
or  slighted,  the  conception  of  sin  is  apt  to  lose  its 
ethical  content  and  to  become  formal.  India,  through 
Buddha,  abandoned,  largely,  its  long-cherished  principle 
of  vicariousness  and  the  multiplicity  of  its  sacrifices. 
The  consequence  has  been  the  gradual  emasculation 
of  the  principle  of  atonement,  until  the  word  has  be- 
come emptied  of  content  and  degraded  so  as  to  mean 
only  the  eating  of  a  filthy  pill  because  of  a  certain 
ceremonial  uncleanness,  which  all  the  best  people  of 
the  land  know  to  be  no  uncleanness  whatever. 

It  is  natural,  under  these  circumstances,  to  see  the 
idea  of  sin  also  cease  to  have  reference  to  moral 
obliquity  and  violation  of  ethical  principles,  and  to 
refer  only  to  intellectual  blindness  and  (more  com- 
monly) to  ceremonial  laxness  and  ritualistic  malfea- 
sance. It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  under  this 
double  departure  from  the  truth,  conscience  should 
have  lost  its  place  of  importance  and  of  authority  to 
so  large  an  extent  in  this  land. 

But  the  day  of  better  things  has  dawned  upon  India. 


442  INDIA:   ITS   LIFE   AND   THOUGHT 

The  ethical  concept  and  the  moral  significance  of  life 
are  beginning  to  grip  India  very  thoroughly.  And  I 
believe  that  the  day  will  soon  come  when  sin  will 
cease  to  be  connected  with  intellectual  delusion  and 
ignorance,  and  also  with  ceremonial  irregularity,  and 
will  be  recognized  in  its  true  moral  hideousness  as  a 
thing  of  will,  and  not  of  intellect,  a  thing  of  deepest 
life,  and  not  of  puerile  ritual. 

Thus,  with  the  coming  of  Christ  and  the  emphasis 
of  western  thought  and  western  civilization  upon 
moral  integrity  and  nobility  of  character,  there  is 
growing  also  a  vision  of  sin  in  its  right  colour  and 
perspective.  The  gradual  training  of  the  people  in 
British  law  and  in  the  social  ethics  of  the  West,  and  in 
the  true  meaning  of  the  righteousness  of  the  Kingdom 
of  God  as  promulgated  by  the  Christian  faith,  will,  ere- 
long, drive  out  the  old  pantheistic  idea  proclaimed  by 
Vivekanada,  when  he  said  that  the  only  sin  that  man 
was  capable  of  was  the  sin  of  regarding  himself  as  a 
sinner !  It  will  also  make  it  impossible  for  murderers 
to  excuse  themselves,  as  one  did  recently  to  our  know- 
ledge, as  he  was  led  to  be  executed,  by  saying  that  it  was 
not  he,  but  the  god  within  him,  that  slew  the  man ! 

India  is  really  passing  through  a  quiet,  but,  never- 
theless, a  mighty  ethical  revolution.  Its  fundamental 


THE   PROGRESS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN   INDIA      443 

principles  of  morality  and  of  religion,  as  the  inter- 
preters of  life,  are  being  rapidly  transformed.  Chris- 
tianity is  sowing  everywhere  its  seed  of  life  and  of 
character,  as  they  are  exemplified  in  the  perfect  life 
of  Jesus,  and  are  elaborated  in  the  four  Gospels,  in 
comparison  with  which  the  message  of  the  four  Vedas 
and  of  all  subsequent  Hindu  literature  is  but  as  the 
dark  and  feeble  groping  of  the  blind  after  light. 

These,  then,  are  the  five  fundamental  aspects  of  our 
faith  which  are  among  the  eternal  verities  and  which 
have  come  to  India  smiling  with  the  impress  of  uni- 
versality, and  which  are  finding  gradual  acceptance  in 
all  portions  of  the  land.  These  represent  what  one 
has  aptly  called  "  Substantive  Christianity,"  as  distinct 
from  "  Adjectival  Christianity,"  which  men  are  prone 
to  overemphasize  and  to  exalt  unto  the  heavens. 
This  latter  we  may  love  and  cherish  and  promote  with 
all  our  hearts;  but  it  is  sectional,  partial,  and  transi- 
tory. The  former,  on  the  other  hand,  is  abiding,  and 
will  shine  throughout  the  ages  of  eternity.  It  will 
grow  in  influence  and  increase  in  its  prevalence 
throughout  this  land  until  we  all  can  say,  with  the 
late  Chunder  Sen,  and  with  much  more  assurance 
than  he,  "  None  but  Jesus  is  worthy  to  wear  this 
diadem,  India;  and  He  shall  have  it," 


INDEX 


Abhedhinanda  Swami,  431. 

Abul  Fazli,  311. 

Agra,  42,  308. 

Akbar  the  Great,  50,  311. 

Aligharh  College,  331. 

Allah  Upanishad,  319. 

Almsgiving  in  Islam,  324. 

Altruism  in  Hinduism,  183. 

Amritsar,  61. 

Amritsar  District,  335. 

Animism,  210. 

Arjuna  and  his  Vision,  154,  161. 

Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  49. 

Aryans  and  Caste,  94. 

Aryans  of  the  East  and  the  West,  23. 

Arya  Somaj,  400-404. 

Asceticism,  the  Way  of,  171,  215,  228. 

Asia,  the  Mother  of  Faiths,  344. 

Asoka's  Pillar,  57. 

Astrologer,  251. 

Astrology,  217,  299. 

Athi  Somaj,  383. 

Atma  Doctrine,  167. 

Atma  Sabha,  380. 

Aurangzeeb,  307,  312. 

Auspicious  Days,  218,  299. 

Avidia,  170,  223. 

Bande  Mataram,  3. 
Baptist,  Americans,  84. 
Barber's  Wife,  Midwife,  271. 
Barrows,  Dr.  J.  H.,  126. 
Beatitudes,  the,  369. 
Beef  Eating,  126. 
Benares,  66. 
Bengal,  Partition  of,  2. 
Bengalees  and  Caste,  145. 
Besant,  Mrs.,  406,  409. 
Bhagavad  Gita,  152,  189. 
Bhagavad  Gita  and  Bhakti,  182. 


Bhakti,  181. 

Blavatsky,  Madame,  405. 

Boh  Tree,  the,  368. 

Bombay,  39. 

Boycott,  2. 

Brahma,  279. 

Brahma  Gn£na,  170,  223. 

Erahmo  Somaj,  380-400. 

Buddha,  227. 

Buddha  and  "  Saint  Josaphat,"  341. 

Buddhism,  69. 

Buddhism  isolated,  375. 

Burma's  Produce,  73. 

Burmese  Women,  80. 

Calcutta  University,  6. 

Caste  and  Commerce,  134. 

Caste  and  Contact,  109. 

Caste  and  Inter-dining,  107. 

Caste  and  Intermarriage,  105. 

Caste  and  its  Results,  129. 

Caste  and  Totemism,  1 14. 

Caste  and  Occupation,  98,  1 1 2. 

Caste  Decadence,  144. 

Caste  Penalties,  115. 

Caste    System,    17,    22,    91-151,   177, 

199. 

Caste  unknown  in  Burma,  84. 
Census,  313. 
Census  on  Caste,  96. 
Chaitanya,  377. 
Chakkerbutty,  Professor,  259. 
Characterization  of  Caste,  102. 
Child  Marriage,  214,  260. 
Chinese,  109,  284. 
Christ  and  Buddha,  340-373. 
Christ  Ideal,  434-437. 
Christ  Incarnation,  225,  437. 
Christ,  the  Cross  of,  439. 
Christian  College  Magazine,  202. 


445 


446 


INDEX 


Christian  Effort  for  Mohammedans,  333. 
Christianity  and  Caste,  149. 
Christianity  —  its    Progress   in    India, 

412-443. 

Chunder  Sen,  Keshub,  382. 
Civilization,  Western,  7. 
Cleanliness  of  Hindus,  267. 
Clothing,  Hindu,  268. 
Congress,  National,  8. 
Contradictions  in  Bhagavad  Gita,  187. 
Cooch  Behar,  Maharajah,  384. 
Crossing  Theory  of  Caste,  100. 
Culinary  Arrangements  in  Hindu  Home, 

268. 
Cycles  of  Hindu  Time,  286. 

Dalhousie,  Lord,  210. 

Dancing  Girls,  106,  212. 

Dante's  Inferno,  206,  212,  357. 

Debendra,  Nath,  381. 

Dedication  of  a  House,  g^. 

Delhi,  53,  308. 

Deportation,  20. 

Detachment,  179. 

Devil  Worship,  206. 

Dharma,  346. 

Dowry  and  Marriage,  260. 

Dravidians  and  Caste,  101. 

Dravidians  and  Devil  Worship,  34. 

Durgai  Pujei,  315. 

Dutch  Conquest,  38. 

Dayanand  Saraswati,  400. 

Eclecticism,  156. 

Education,  6. 

Educational  Works  of  Protestants,  414. 

Eliot,  George,  372. 

Epicure,  Hindu,  268. 

Eschatology  of  Hindu  Shastras,  185. 

Evolutionist,  196. 

Fate,  Doctrine  of,  329. 
Fetichism,  209. 
Financial  Statement,  13. 
Fish  Incarnation,  226. 
Frazer,  J.  G.,  114. 
Fuller,  Sir  Bampfylde,  18. 
Funeral  Ceremonies,  272. 
Furniture  of  a  Home,  245. 


Ganesh,  201. 
Golden  Temple,  65. 
Government  and  Caste,  148. 
Greek  Images,  200. 
Greeks,  276. 
Grierson,  Dr.,  319. 
Guru  Kula,  403. 

Hindu  Architecture,  33. 
Hinduism  amorphous,  194. 
Hinduism,  Higher,  106,  190. 
Hinduism,  Popular,  190-219. 
"  Hindus  as  they  are,"  243,  257. 
Hindus  not  Historians,  282. 
Home  Life  of  Hindus,  242-275. 
Horoscope,  261. 
House  Building,  243. 

Ibbetson,  Sir  Denzil,  on  Caste,  97. 

Ideal,  Divine,  in  Hinduism,  223. 

Ideals,  Hindu  Religious,  220. 

Idolatry,  176. 

Idol  whipped,  176,  205. 

Iliad,  153. 

Imaduddin,  Dr.,  335. 

Immorality  in  Hinduism,  2IO. 

Incarnation,  Hindu  and  Christian,  163, 

200,  225. 

India,  the  Mother  of  Faiths,  30. 
Irrawaddy  River,  72. 
Islam  and  Caste,  325. 
Islam  in  India,  302-337. 
Islam,  its  History  in  India,  305. 
Islam  Purists,  327. 
Islam  Unitarian,  309. 

Jain  ism,  41. 

Japan,  2. 

Japan's  Victory,  5. 

Japanese,  197. 

Jesus  an  Asiatic,  394. 

Jesus  and  the  Pharisees,  348,  351. 

Jewels,  Love  of,  285. 

Jews  of  Cochin,  38. 

Jogendra  Nath  Bhattacharya,  130. 

Joint  Family  System,  246. 

Kali,  195. 

Kali  Yuga,  276-301. 


INDEX 


447 


Karens,  85. 

Karma,  Doctrine  of,  359. 

Kauravas,  154. 

Kipling,  Rmlyard,  21. 

Knowledge,  the  Way  of,  169. 

Kohinoor  Diamond,  50. 

Ko  San  Ye,  87. 

Krishna,  155,  165,  195,  291. 

Kuruchetra,  154. 

Lala  Lajpat  Rai,  20. 

Laws  abolishing  Hindu  Rites,  419. 

Legislative  Councils —  Enlargement  of, 

28. 

Length  of  Hindu  Time  System,  277. 
Liberation,  Doctrine  of,  169. 

Madura  —  its  Temple  and  Palace,  32. 

Madwachariar,  377. 

Mahai>harata,  153. 

Maha  Yuga,  279. 

Mandalay,  78. 

Manu,  281. 

Marriage  not  a  Sentiment,  260. 

"  Masters  "  of  Theosophy,  409. 

Metempsychosis,  236. 

Moderates,  the,  10. 

Modern  Religious  Movements,  374-411. 

Mohammedan  Loyalty,  15. 

Mohammedan  Population,  302. 

Mohammedanism,  42,  140,  302—337. 

Moral  Character  of  Time,  292. 

Mother-in-Law,  264. 

Mourning  in  a  Hindu  Home,  272. 

Mozumdar,  Protab,  386-391. 

Mutiny,  the,  i. 

Nana  Sahib,  107. 

Nanak  Shah,  319,  378. 

NatSsa  Sastri,  Pundit,  293. 

Native  Doctors,  270. 

New  Dispensation,  399. 

New  Dispensation's  Creed,  396. 

Obscenity,  Law  punishing,  2IO. 

Occupational  Theory  of  Caste,  98. 

Odyssey,  the,  153. 

Olcott,  Colonel,  405,  408. 

Omens,  217. 

('  Oriental  Christ,"  391. 


Origin  of  Caste,  93. 
Outcastes  of  Panjamas,  208. 

Pagoda,  the  Land  of  the,  73. 

Pal,  Bepin  Chandra,  12. 

Pandavas,  154. 

Pan  Islamic  Movement,  332. 

Panjaub  —  its  Difficulty,  18. 

Pantheism,  160. 

Pariahs  and  Hindus,  209. 

Parliament,  Members  of,  7. 

Parsees,  40. 

Pax  Britannica,  312. 

Pessimism,  Hindu,  217. 

Plutscho,  Rev.,  412. 

Polygamy  of  Mohammedans,  320. 

Polytheism,  199. 

Prakriti,  159. 

Prayaschitta,  120. 

Press  in  India,  the,  n,  21. 

Prosperity  in  India,  14. 

Protestantism  and  Caste,  143. 

Protestantism,  its  Bicentenary,  412. 

Protestant  Missionary  Force,  414. 

Proverbs  about  Women,  253. 

Puranas,  156,  277. 

Quietism,  233. 
Quran,  the,  318. 

Rahu  Kala,  300. 

Railroads  and  Caste,  147. 

Rajputana  Mohammedans,  316. 

Ramachandra,  281. 

Ramayana,  157,  281. 

Ram  Mohun  Roy,  379. 

Rangoon,  72. 

Religious  Theory  of  Caste,  95. 

Renunciation,  233. 

Revenue  of  Government,  13. 

Rishis,  295. 

Risley,  Sir  H.,  on  Caste,  IO2. 

Robson,  Dr.,  322. 

Romish  Missionaries,  284. 

Sadharana  Somaj,  385. 
Sadhus,  215. 
Saivites,  158. 
Sakti  Worship,  212. 


INDEX 


Salvation  in  Hinduism,  184. 

Sarnath,  69. 

Sati,  255-257. 

SSyuchya,  171,  229. 

Schools  and  Caste,  148. 

Schwey  Dagon,  74. 

Sedition,  12. 

Shah  Jehan,  45,  307. 

Sham,  a  Huge,  232. 

Shiahs,  327. 

Shradda,  273. 

Sidhartthan,  342. 

Sikhs  and  their  Faith,  62,  319. 

Sin,  Christian  Conception  of,  441. 

Site  of  a  House,  243. 

Siva's  Trident,  300. 

Sleeping  on  the  Floor,  246. 

Social  Reform,  26,  98,  419. 

Social  Theory  of  Caste,  97. 

Soothsayers,  97,  251. 

South  India  Islam,  317. 

Statistics  of  Indian  Faiths,  31. 

Sunnis,  327. 

Superstitions  of  Islam,  315. 

Sw&desha,  420. 

Swami,  Hindu,  198. 

Sword  of  Islam,  306. 

Syrian  Church,  34,  140,  412. 

Tantras,  156. 
Taxation  in  India,  14. 
Temple  Cars,  211. 
Theebaw,  79. 
Theism,  378. 
Theism  unsatisfying,  398. 


Theosophical  Society,  404-411. 

Thomasians,  35. 

Totemism  and  Caste,  1 14. 

Towers  of  Silence,  40. 

Transmigration,  362. 

Travancore,  the  Land  of  Charity,  34. 

Travancore  Maharajah,  ill. 

Travel  in  India,  31. 

Tribal  Theory  of  Caste,  96. 

Triumph  of  Christianity,  425. 

Triumph  of  Christian  Principles,  430. 

Ultimate  Salvation  in  Hinduism,  235. 
Universities  and  Politics,  20. 
University  Graduates,  6. 
Usury,  323. 

Vaishnava  Cult,  158. 
Vedantic  Philosophy,  156. 
Vishnu,  279. 
Visishdadvaitha,  376. 
VivSkananda,  Swami,  126,  431. 

Western  Christianity  inadequate,  240. 
Western  Medical  Science,  271. 
Wherry,  Dr.,  311. 
Widows,  Hindu,  213,  263. 
Williams,  Sir  Monier,  321. 
Women  in  Hinduism,  213,  252. 
Works,  Doctrine  of,  174. 

Yama,  257. 

YSga  Philosophy,  156,  172. 

Ziegenbalg,  412. 


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